Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

New insights into microstructure evolution mechanism of compacted loess and its engineering implications

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

As the macroscopic mechanical properties of soil are closely related to its microstructure, and loess historically played an important role in engineering construction, the effect of compaction on the microstructure of compacted loess was investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) in this study. The SEM imaging results showed that as compaction degree increased, the loess microstructure evolved from an overhead weak into an interlocking semi-cementation, and then into a dispersion-strong cementation. Correspondingly, the pore characteristics mainly exhibited a transformation from macropores (diameter > 32 μm) to mesopores (diameter between 8 and 32 μm) and then to small pores (diameter between 2 and 8 μm). The MIP test results showed that the content volume of intragranular pores (diameter between 1.8 and 70 μm) decreased with increasing loess compactness, whereas the contents of intra-particle, interparticle, and intergranular pores were stable, indicating that the compaction of loess was mainly caused by compression of the intragranular pores. Additionally, the variation interval of the dominant pore type (intragranular pore) observed by the MIP test was consistent with the comprehensive variation interval of the pore types (macropore, mesopore, and small pores) observed by SEM imagery. These findings are helpful to explain the linkage law between loess structure, engineering characteristics, and catastrophic effects.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alabi O (2011) Validity of Darcy’s law in laminar regime. Electron J Geotech Eng 16:27–40

    Google Scholar 

  • Ali A, Biggs AJW, Marchuk A, Bennett JM (2019) Effect of irrigation water pH on saturated hydraulic conductivity and electrokinetic properties of acidic, neutral, and alkaline soils. Soil Sci Soc Am J 83(6):1672–1682

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Taie L, Pusch R, Knutsson S (2014) Hydraulic properties of smectite rich claycontrolled by hydraulic gradients and filter types. Appl Clay Sci 87:73–80

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Assadi-Langroudi A, Ng’ambi S, Smalley I (2018) Loess as a collapsible soil: some basic particle packing aspects. Quatern Int 469:20–29

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Assallay AM, Rogers CDF, Smalley IJ (1996) Engineering properties of loess in Libya. J Arid Environ 32(4):373–386

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ASTM (2006) Annual book of ASTM standards. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pa

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourazanis G, Katsileros A, Kosmas C, Kerkides P (2016) The effect of treated municipal wastewater and fresh water on saturated hydraulic conductivity of a clay-loamy soil. Water Resour Manag 30(8):2867–2880

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng Q, Tang CS, Xu D, Zeng H, Shi B (2021) Water infiltration in a cracked soil considering effect of drying-wetting cycles. J Hydrol 593:125640

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daniel DE (1994). In: Daniel DE, Trautwein SJ (eds) State-of-the-art: laboratory hydraulic conductivity tests for saturated soils. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, pp 30–78

    Google Scholar 

  • Delage P, Lefebvre G (1984) Study of the structure of a sensitive Champlain clay and of its evolution during consolidation. Can Geotech J 21(1):21–35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Derbyshire E (2001) Geological hazards in loess terrain, with particular reference to the loess regions of China. Earth Sci Rev 54(1):231–260

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ge MM, Pineda JA, Sheng DC, Burton GJ, Li N (2021) Microstructural effects on the wetting-induced collapse in compacted loess. Comput Geotech 138:104359

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giesche H (2006) Mercury porosimetry: a general (practical) overview. Part Part Syst Charact 23(1):9–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hou K, Qian H, Zhang YT, Zhang QY, Qu WG (2021) New insights into loess formation on the southern margin of the Chinese Loess Plateau. CATENA 204:105444

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hansbo S (2001) Consolidation equation valid for both Darcian and non-Darcian flow. Geotechnique 51:51–54

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jiang M, Zhang F, Hu H, Cui Y, Peng J (2014) Structural characterization of natural loess and remolded loess under triaxial tests. Eng Geol 181:249–260

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jozefaciuk G, Czachor H, Lamorski K, Hajnos M, Swieboda R, Franus W (2015) Effect of humic acids, sesquioxides and silica on the pore system of silt aggregates measured by water vapour desorption, mercury intrusion and microtomography. Eur J Soil Sci 66(6):992–1001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kloubek J (1981) Hysteresis in porosimetry. Powder Technol 29(1):63–73

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee KT, Ho JY (2009) Prediction of landslide occurrence based on slope-instability analysis and hydrological model simulation. J Hydrol 375(3–4):489–497

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lei XY (1987) The types of loess pores in China and their relationship with collapsibility. Sci China B 17(12):1309–1318 (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  • Li G, Wang F, Ma W, Fortier R, Mu Y, Mao Y, Hou X (2018) Variations in strength and deformation of compacted loess exposed to wetting-drying and freeze-thaw cycles. Cold Reg Sci Technol 151:159–167

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li P, Qian H, Wu J (2014) Environment: accelerate research on land creation. Nature 510(7503):29–31

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li P, Vanapalli S, Li T (2016) Review of collapse triggering mechanism of collapsible soils due to wetting. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 8(2):256–274

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li PF, Sun Q, Geng JS, Yan XS, Tang LY (2022) Radon exhalation from temperature treated loess. Sci Total Environ 832:154925

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li X-A, Li L, Song Y, Hong B, Wang L, Sun J (2019) Characterization of the mechanisms underlying loess collapsibility for land-creation project in Shaanxi Province, China–a study from a micro perspective. Eng Geol 249:77–88

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li XA, Li LC (2017) Quantification of the pore structures of Malan loess and the effects on loess permeability and environmental significance, Shaanxi Province, China: an experimental study. Environ Earth Sci 76(15):523

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li Y (2018) A review of shear and tensile strengths of the Malan loess in China. Eng Geol 236:4–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lu Y, Liu SH, Zhang YG, Wang LJ, Li Z (2021) Hydraulic conductivity of gravelly soils with various coarse particle contents subjected to freeze-thaw cycles. J Hydrol 598:126302

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu Z, Liu F, Ma F, Wang M, Bai X, Zheng Y, Yin H, Zhang G (2015) Collapsibility, composition, and microstructure of loess in China. Can Geotech J 53(4):673–686

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luo H, Wu F, Chang J, Xu J (2018) Microstructural constraints on geotechnical properties of Malan loess: a case study from Zhaojiaan landslide in Shaanxi province, China. Eng Geol 236:60–69

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ma Y (2017) Multiscale research of loess structural behavior. Northwest University, Xi’an (Doctor Thesis)

    Google Scholar 

  • Monroy R, Zdravkovic L, Ridley AJG (2010) Microstructural evolution in compacted London clay during wetting and loading. Géotechnique 60(2):105–119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Munoz-Castelblanco JA, Pereira JM, Delage P, Cui YI (2012) The water retention properties of a natural unsaturated loess from northern France. Geotechnique 62(2):95–106

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nan JJ, Peng JB, Zhu FJ, Zhao JY, Leng YQ (2021) Multiscale characteristics of the wetting deformation of Malan loess in the Yan’an area, China. J Mt Sci 18(4):1112–1130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ng CWW, Sadeghi H, Hossen SKB, Chiu CF, Alonso EE, Baghbanrezvan S (2016) Water retention and volumetric characteristics of intact and re-compacted loess. Can Geotech J 53(8):1258–1269

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pécsi M (1990) Loess is not just the accumulation of dust. Quatern Int 7–8:1–21

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qi S, Vanapalli SK (2015) Hydro-mechanical coupling effect on surficial layer stability of unsaturated expansive soil slopes. Comput Geotech 70:68–82

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rabot E, Wiesmeier M, Schlüter S, Vogel H-J (2018) Soil structure as an indicator of soil functions: a review. Geoderma 314:122–137

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Romero E (2013) A microstructural insight into compacted clayey soils and their hydraulic properties. Eng Geol 165:3–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shear DL, Olsen HW, Nelson KR (1992) Effects of desiccation on the hydraulic conductivity versus void ratio relationship for a natural clay. Transportation Research Board, USA

    Google Scholar 

  • SGTM (2019) Standard for geotechnical testing method (GB/T 50123–2019), National standards of People’s Republic of China. China Planning Press, Beijing

    Google Scholar 

  • USDA (1951) Soil Survey Manual, U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Agricultural Handbook No. 18. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang H, Qian H, Gao Y (2020a) Non-Darcian flow in loess at low hydraulic gradient. Eng Geol 267:105483

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang J-D, Li P, Ma Y, Vanapalli SK (2019) Evolution of pore-size distribution of intact loess and remolded loess due to consolidation. J Soils Sediments 19(3):1226–1238

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang J-J, Qiu Z-F (2017) Anisotropic hydraulic conductivity and critical hydraulic gradient of a crushed sandstone–mudstone particle mixture. Mar Georesour Geotechnol 35(1):89–97

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang JD, Li P, Ma Y, Vanapalli SK, Wang XG (2020b) Change in pore-size distribution of collapsible loess due to loading and inundating. Acta Geotech 15(5):1081–1094

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang TM, Wu JG, Kou XJ, Oliver C, Mou P, Ge JP (2010) Ecologically asynchronous agricultural practice erodes sustainability of the Loess Plateau of China. Ecol Appl 20(4):1126–1135

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Washburn EW (1921) Note on a method of determining the distribution of pore sizes in a porous material. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 7(4):115

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu FC, Liu Y, Zhao XN, Guo ZT et al (2021) Research report on progress strategy of environmental science disciplines. Science Press, Beijing

    Google Scholar 

  • Xie W-L, Li P, Zhang M-S, Cheng T-E, Wang Y (2018) Collapse behavior and microstructural evolution of loess soils from the Loess Plateau of China. J Mt Sci 15(8):1642–1657

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu J, Lan W, Li YF, Wang SH, Cheng WC, Yao XL (2020a) Heat, water and solute transfer in saline loess under uniaxial freezing condition. Comput Geotech 118:103319

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu P, Lin T, Qian H, Zhang Q (2021a) Anisotropic microstructure of loess-paleosol sequence and its significance for engineering and paleoclimate: a case study from Xiushidu (XSD) profile, southern Chinese Loess Plateau. Eng Geol 286:106092

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu P, Zhang Q, Qian H, Hou K (2020b) Investigation into microscopic mechanisms of anisotropic saturated permeability of undisturbed Q2 loess. Environ Earth Sci 79(18):412

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu PP, Qian H, Zhang QY, Zheng L (2021b) Exploring the saturated permeability of remolded loess under inorganic salt solution seepage. Eng Geol 294:106354

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu PP, Zhang QY, Qian H, Li MN, Yang FX (2021c) An investigation into the relationship between saturated permeability and microstructure of remolded loess: A case study from Chinese Loess Plateau. Geoderma 382:15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu PP, Zhang QY, Qian H, Qu WG, Li MN (2021d) Microstructure and permeability evolution of remolded loess with different dry densities under saturated seepage. Eng Geol 282:14

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu PP, Zhang QY, Qian H, Yang FX, Zheng L (2021e) Investigating the mechanism of pH effect on saturated permeability of remolded loess. Eng Geol 284:105978

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu P (2021) Study on water-soil interaction mechanism of permeability change of remolded loess. Chang’an University, Xi’an, China (D.S. Thesis)

    Google Scholar 

  • Xu PP, Qian H, Zhang QY, Li WQ, Ren WH (2022a) Investigating saturated hydraulic conductivity of remolded loess subjected to CaCl2 solution of varying concentrations. J Hydrol 612:128135

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu PP, Qian H, Zhang QY, Shang JT, Guo YK, Li MN (2022b) Response mechanism of permeability change of remolded loess to seepage parameters. J Hydrol 612:128224

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yan X, Duan Z, Sun Q (2021) Influences of water and salt contents on the thermal conductivity of loess. Environ Earth Sci 80(2):1–14

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang T, Ma L, Zhang R, Wang Q, Li J (2019) Analysis for effect of MIP-Based compaction on microstructure of remolded mud stone with “micro-expansion.” J Eng Geol 27(04):717–722 (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang X, Lu T, Lu Y, Lu Y, Li X, Pan W (2018) Characteristics of Malan loess porosity in south Jingyang plateau under scanning electron microscope. Bull Soil Water Conserv 38(03):212–216 (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang X, Qian H, Wu H, Chen J, Qiao L (2016) Multivariate analysis of confined groundwater hydrochemistry of a long-exploited sedimentary basin in Northwest China. J Chem 2016:1–15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang Y, Bing H, Yang CS (2015) Influences of freeze-thaw cycles on mechanical properties of silty clay based on SEM and MIP test. Chin J Rock Mech Eng 34(S1):3597–3603

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang Y, Cao W, Wang W, Dong Q (2013) Distribution of groundwater arsenic and hydraulic gradient along the shallow groundwater flow-path in Hetao Plain, northern China. J Geochem Explor 135:31–39

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank all the reviewers who participated in the review and MJ Editor (www.mjeditor.com) for its linguistic assistance during the preparation of this manuscript.

Funding

The present work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 42202311, 41931285, 42007184, and 41790441), the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (Grant No. 2022M710480), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities, CHD (Grant No. 300102292901), the Programme of Introducing Talents of Discipline to Universities (Grant No. B08039), and the Innovation and Entrepreneurship Training Program for College Students (Grant No. S202210710364). Their support is gratefully acknowledged.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Water and Environment, Chang’an University, Xi’an 710054, Shaanxi, China

    Panpan Xu, Hui Qian, Jie Chen, Lingbo Wang, Xayda Abliz, Xiaoqiang He, Gaoxiang Ma & Yuan Liu

  2. Key Laboratory of Subsurface Hydrology and Ecological Effects in Arid Region of the Ministry of Education, Chang’an University, Xi’an 710054, Shaanxi, China

    Panpan Xu, Hui Qian, Jie Chen, Lingbo Wang, Xayda Abliz, Xiaoqiang He, Gaoxiang Ma & Yuan Liu

Authors
  1. Panpan Xu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Hui Qian
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jie Chen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Lingbo Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Xayda Abliz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Xiaoqiang He
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Gaoxiang Ma
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Yuan Liu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Hui Qian.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Xu, P., Qian, H., Chen, J. et al. New insights into microstructure evolution mechanism of compacted loess and its engineering implications. Bull Eng Geol Environ 82, 36 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-022-03058-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-022-03058-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation