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Groundwater utilization through the centuries focusing οn the Hellenic civilizations

Utilisation de l’eau souterraine à travers les siècles se focalisant sur les civilisations grecques

Utilización del agua subterránea a través de los siglos enfocando sobre las civilizaciones helénicas

通过诸世纪聚焦希腊文明看地下水利用

Αξιοποίηση των υπόγειων νερών διαμέσου των αιώνων με έμφαση στους Ελληνικούς πολιτισμούς

L’utilizzo durante i secoli delle acque sotterranee nella civiltà ellenica

تفاده از آب های زیرزمینی در قرون متمادی با در نظر گرفتن تمدن های یونان

Utilização das águas subterrâneas através dos séculos com foco nas civilizações helênicas

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Abstract

Groundwater has been utilized since the Prehistoric times. Water supply of some Minoan settlements on the eastern side of the island of Crete (Greece) was based on groundwater. Later on, many wells were constructed in several areas of Greece and their use expanded through subsequent periods. The greatest achievement in groundwater exploitation by ancient Greeks was the construction of long underground galleries or qanats, which collected water from springs and alluvial deposits. In Classical times, most of the wells were on private properties and their owners were forced by regulations to maintain the wells in good condition and ready for use in wartime. During that period, the first scientific theories of Aristotle and Theophrastus were developed in regards to hydrological phenomena, and the processes involved in the formation of surface water and groundwater were clarified. Wells played a major part in urban water supply during the Roman period, in which famous aqueducts were constructed to transfer water; however, several regions of Greece were self-sufficient in water, supplied by many wells from the Prehistoric to the Byzantine period. People understood the local geological conditions and, according to their culture, constructed and managed their own types of wells. In addition to the wells and aqueducts, the hydraulic technology included cisterns to store rainwater, and systems to capture spring water for transport by aqueducts. The examples of hydro-technologies and water management practices described in this paper may have some relevance for water engineering even in modern times.

Résumé

L’eau souterraine a été utilisée depuis les temps préhistoriques. L’approvisionnement en eau de certaines colonies Minoennes de la côte est de l’île de Crète (Grèce) était fondée sur les eaux souterraines. Plus tard, de nombreux puits ont été creusés dans plusieurs régions de Grèce et leur utilisation s’est développée au cours des périodes suivantes. La plus grande réussite dans l’exploitation de l’eau souterraine par les Grecs anciens a été la construction de longues galeries souterraines ou qanats, qui collectaient l’eau de sources ou de dépôts alluvionnaires. Dans l’Antiquité la plupart des puits étaient situés sur des propriétés privées et leurs propriétaires ont été contraints par la réglementation de maintenir les puits en bon état, prêts à l’emploi en temps de guerre. Durant cette période, Aristote et Théophraste développent les premières théories scientifiques relatives à l’hydrologie, et les processus entrant dans la formation des eaux de surface et souterraines ont été clarifiés. Les puits ont joué un rôle majeur dans l’approvisionnement en eau urbaine durant la période romaine, période durant laquelle des aqueducs célèbres ont été construits pour le transfert d’eau. Toutefois, depuis la Préhistoire jusqu’à la période Byzantine, plusieurs régions de Grèce étaient auto-suffisantes en eau, alimentées par les nombreux puits. Les populations comprenaient les structures géologiques locales et, selon leur culture, construisaient et exploitaient leurs propres types de puits. En plus des puits et aqueducs, la technologie hydraulique incluait des citernes pour stocker l’eau de pluie, et des systèmes pour capter l’eau de source et la transporter par aqueducs. Les exemples d’hydro-technologies et les pratiques de gestion de l’eau décrits dans cet article peuvent être pertinents pour l’ingénierie de l’eau même dans les temps modernes.

Resumen

El agua subterránea se ha utilizado desde los tiempos prehistóricos. El abastecimiento de agua de algunos asentamientos minoicos en el lado oriental de la isla de Creta (Grecia) se basó en el agua subterránea. Más tarde, se construyeron muchos pozos en varias zonas de Grecia y su uso se expandió a través de períodos subsiguientes. El mayor logro en la explotación del agua subterránea por los antiguos griegos fue la construcción de largas galerías subterráneas o qanats, que recogían el agua de los manantiales y depósitos aluviales. En la época clásica la mayor parte de los pozos estaban en propiedades privadas y sus propietarios se vieron obligados por las normas para mantener los pozos en buenas condiciones y listos para su uso en tiempos de guerra. Durante ese período, las primeras teorías científicas de Aristóteles y Teofrasto se desarrollaron sobre los fenómenos hidrológicos, y se clarificaron los procesos que intervienen en la formación del agua superficial y del agua subterránea. Los pozos jugaron un papel importante en el suministro de agua urbana en la época romana, en la que se construyeron famosos acueductos para transferir el agua. Sin embargo, varias regiones de Grecia fueron autosuficientes en agua, suministrada por muchos pozos desde tiempos prehistóricos hasta el período bizantino. La gente entendió las condiciones geológicas locales y, de acuerdo con su cultura, construyeron y gestionaron sus propios tipos de pozos. Además de los pozos y acueductos, la tecnología hidráulica incluyó cisternas para almacenar agua de lluvia, y sistemas para captar agua de manantiales para su transporte por acueductos. Los ejemplos de los hidrotecnologías y las prácticas de gestión del agua que se describen en este trabajo pueden tener alguna relevancia para la ingeniería del agua, incluso en los tiempos modernos.

摘要

自从史前时代就开始利用地下水。(希腊)克里特岛东边的一些克里特人居住点的供水就靠 地下水。后来,在希腊一些地方打了很多井,随后的年代井利用进一步扩大。古希腊人地下水开采最大的成果就是建设很长的地下长廊或坎井,这些长廊和坎井从泉中及冲积层中收集水。在古希腊罗马时代,大多数井为私有财产,规定拥有者必须保持井的良好状态,在战时随时能投入使用。在那个时代,亚里士多德和泰奥弗拉斯托斯提出的关于水文现象、地表水和地下水形成过程的基本科学理论得到了清晰的阐明。在罗马时代,井在城市供水中发挥着主要作用,同时,还建设了著名的渡槽以输水。然而,希腊的几个地区从史前时代到东罗马帝国时代,水量上自给自足,由许多井供水。人们了解当地的地质条件,根据他们的文化程度,还建设和管理着他们特有类型的井。除了井和坎井,水利技术包括储存雨水的蓄水池及获取泉水并通过坎井输水的系统。本文论述的水-技术和水管理实践的实例可能甚至对当代的水工程具有关联性。

Περίληψη

Η χρήση των υπόγειων νερών γινόταν από τα προϊστορικά χρόνια. Η ύδρευση ορισμένων μινωικών οικισμών στην ανατολική πλευρά της Κρήτης (Ελλάδα) βασίστηκε στα υπόγεια νερά. Αργότερα, πολλά πηγάδια κατασκευάστηκαν σε διάφορες περιοχές της Ελλάδα και η χρήση τους επεκτάθηκε στις μεταγενέστερες περιόδους. Το μεγαλύτερο επίτευγμα στον τομέα της εκμετάλλευσης των υπόγειων νερών από τους αρχαίους Έλληνες ήταν η κατασκευή υπόγειων στοών ή qanats, μέσω των οποίων συλλεγόταν το νερό από τις πηγές και τους αλλουβιακούς υδροφορείς. Στην κλασική εποχή τα περισσότερα πηγάδια ήσαν σε ιδιωτικές οικίες και οι ιδιοκτήτες τους αναγκάζονταν από νόμους για τη διατήρησή τους σε καλή κατάσταση και έτοιμα για χρήση σε καιρό πολέμου. Κατά τη διάρκεια αυτής της περιόδου, αναπτύχθηκαν οι πρώτες επιστημονικές θεωρίες του Αριστοτέλη και του Θεόφραστου για τα υδρολογικά φαινόμενα και διευκρινίστηκαν οι διαδικασίες σχηματισμού επιφανειακών και υπόγειων νερών. Τα πηγάδια έπαιξαν σημαντικό ρόλο στην προμήθεια νερού κατά τη Ρωμαϊκή περίοδο, κατά την οποία κατασκευάστηκαν περίφημα υδραγωγεία για τη μεταφορά του νερού. Ωστόσο, αρκετές περιοχές της Ελλάδα ήσαν αυτάρκεις σε νερό, που αντλούνταν από πολλά πηγάδια από την Προϊστορική έως τη Βυζαντινή περίοδο. Οι άνθρωποι αντιλαμβάνονταν τις τοπικές γεωλογικές συνθήκες και, σύμφωνα με τον πολιτισμό τους, κατασκεύασαν και διαχειρίσθηκαν τους δικούς τους τύπους πηγαδιών. Εκτός από τα πηγάδια και τα υδραγωγεία, η υδραυλική τεχνολογία περιλαμβάνει δεξαμενές για την αποθήκευση του νερού της βροχής, και συστήματα για τη συλλογή των πηγαίων νερών και τη μεταφορά τους από υδραγωγεία. Τα παραδείγματα των υδροτεχνολογιών και των πρακτικών διαχείρισης των νερών που περιγράφονται στο παρόν άρθρο μπορεί να έχουν κάποιο ενδιαφέρον ακόμη και στη σύγχρονη εποχή.

Riassunto

Le acque sotterranee sono state utilizzate fin dai tempi preistorici. La fornitura di acqua per alcuni insediamenti minoici, sul lato orientale dell’isola di Creta (Grecia), si è basata sulle acque sotterranee. In seguito, molti pozzi sono stati costruiti in diverse aree della Grecia e il loro utilizzo si è ampliato attraverso periodi successivi. Il più grande successo nello sfruttamento delle acque sotterranee da parte degli antichi greci è stato la costruzione di lunghe gallerie sotterranee o Qantas, che raccoglievano l’acqua da sorgenti e depositi alluvionali. In epoca classica la maggior parte dei pozzi sono stati realizzati sulle proprietà private ed i loro proprietari sono stati costretti dai regolamenti a mantenere i pozzi in buone condizioni e pronto per l’uso in tempo di guerra. Durante questo period sono state definite le prime teorie scientifiche di Aristotele e Teofrasto sviluppate sui fenomeni idrologici e sui processi coinvolti nella formazione delle acque superficiali e sotterranee. I pozzi hanno giocato un ruolo importante nel rifornimento idrico urbano durante il periodo romano, in cui sono stati costruiti acquedotti famosi per trasferire l’acqua. Tuttavia, diverse regioni della Grecia erano autosufficienti in termini di risorsa idrica, fornita da molti pozzi realizzati dalla Preistoria al periodo bizantino. La gente, capite le condizioni geologiche locali e, in base alla loro cultura, hanno costruito e gestiti to i propri tipi di pozzi. In aggiunta ai pozzi e acquedotti, la tecnologia idraulica include cisterne per immagazzinare d’acqua piovana e sistemi per captare le acque sorgive per il trasporto in acquedotti. Gli esempi di tecnologie idrologiche e pratiche di gestione dell’acqua descritte in questo documento possono avere una certa rilevanza per l’ingegneria idraulica anche in tempi moderni.

چکیده

آب های زیرزمینی از زمان های ماقبل تاریخ مورد استفاده قرار گرفته است. تامین آب مورد نیاز برخی از شهرک مینوان در سمت شرقی جزیره کرت (یونان) وابسته به آب های زیرزمینی بوده است. بعدها، بسیاری از چاه در مناطق مختلف از یونان ساخته شد و استفاده از آنها از طریق دوره های بعدی گسترش یافته است. بزرگترین دستاورد در بهره برداری آبهای زیرزمینی توسط یونانیان باستان ساخت گالری های زیرزمینی طولانی و یا قنات، که آب از چشمه ها از رسوبات آبرفتی جمع آوری شد. در دوران باستان بسیاری از چاه در ملک خصوصی و صاحبان خود را با مقررات مجبور شدند برای حفظ چاه در شرایط خوب و آماده برای زمان جنگ مورد استفاده قرار گیرد . در طی این دوره، اولین نظریه های علمی ارسطو و تئوفراسطوس در مورد پدیده های هیدرولوژیکی توسعه یافته، و فرآیندهای درگیر در شکل گیری آب های سطحی و زیرزمینی قرار گرفت. چاه بخش عمده ای در تامین آب شهری در طول دوره روم، که در آن قنات معروف برای انتقال آب ساخته شد بازی کرده است. با این حال، چند مناطق یونان خودکفا در آب بود، از پیش از تاریخ عرضه شده توسط بسیاری از چاه به دوره بیزانس باز میگردد. مردم به شرایط زمین شناسی محلی درک می کردند و با توجه به فرهنگ خود، انواع چاه را ساخته و مدیریت می کردند. علاوه بر این به چاه و قنات، فن آوری های هیدرولیک شامل مخزن برای ذخیره آب باران، و سیستم جهت انتقال توسط آبراهه و یا کانال مورد توجه بوده است. نمونه هایی از آبی- فن آوری و شیوه های مدیریت آب در این مقاله ممکن است برخی از ارتباط برای مهندسی آب حتی در دوران مدرن باشد.

Resumo

As águas subterrâneas têm sido utilizadas desde os períodos pré-históricos. O abastecimento de água de alguns assentamentos Minoicos, no lado leste da ilha de Creta (Grécia), era baseado em águas subterrâneas. Posteriormente, muitos poços foram construídos em várias áreas da Grécia e seus usos expandidos através dos períodos subsequentes. A maior conquista de exploração de águas subterrâneas pelos gregos antigos foi a construção de longas galerias subterrâneas ou qanats, que coletavam água de fontes e depósitos aluviais. Nos tempos clássicos, a maioria dos poços estavam em propriedades privadas e seus proprietários eram obrigados, através de regulamentos, a mantê-los em boas condições e prontos para uso em tempo de guerra. Durante esse período, as primeiras teorias científicas desenvolvidas por Aristóteles e Teofrasto sobre os fenômenos hidrológicos e os processos envolvidos na formação de águas superficiais e subterrâneas foram esclarecidas. Os poços representavam um importante papel no abastecimento urbano de água durante o período romano, no qual aquedutos famosos foram construídos para transferir a água. No entanto, várias regiões da Grécia eram autossuficientes em água, abastecidas por muitos poços desde o período Pré-histórico até o período Bizantino. As pessoas compreenderam as condições geológicas locais e, de acordo com sua cultura, construíam e manejavam seus próprios tipos de poços. Além dos poços e aquedutos, a tecnologia hidráulica incluía cisternas para armazenar água da chuva e sistemas para captação de águas de nascentes para transporte por aquedutos. Os exemplos de tecnologias hidráulicas e práticas de gestão da água descritas neste artigo podem ter alguma relevância para a engenharia hídrica, mesmo nos tempos modernos.

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Acknowledgements

Part of this material was presented at the 10th Hydrogeological Conference, Thessaloniki, Greece, 8–10 October, 2014 and published in its Proceedings.

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Angelakis, A.N., Voudouris, K.S. & Mariolakos, I. Groundwater utilization through the centuries focusing οn the Hellenic civilizations. Hydrogeol J 24, 1311–1324 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-016-1392-0

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