Abstract
The use of leaded gasoline adversely affects cardiovascular, nervous, and immune systems. Study projects to rule out different variables of prognostic importance in lead-exposed subjects. A total of 317 traffic wardens with 5 years of outdoor experience and Hb levels < 10 µg/dl, and 100 traffic wardens with indoor duties were substituted in two groups. Levels of vitamins, cytokines, lead, iron, minerals, oxidative stress, and lipid peroxidation were estimated with help of their standard ELISA and spectrophotometric methods respectively. The present study show increased levels of lead in subjects (29.8 ± 3.8 vs. 1.5 ± 0.2 µg/dl) that may be involved in increasing oxidative stress, i.e., levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE), and isoprostanes were increased in subjects (4.6 ± 0.5, 4.3 ± 0.6 and 37.2 ± 5.1). Moreover, levels of antioxidants, i.e., superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione (GSH), and catalase (CAT), were decreased. It also exhibits reduced levels of different enzymes in anemic traffic wardens. Current study concludes that wardens exposed to environmental lead are more susceptible to develop cardiovascular and neurological disorders. It shows that toxicity of lead maybe responsible for redox imbalance and production of proinflammatory cytokines. Thus, early detection of these biomarkers may help to reduce lead toxicity and it also may help to control the dilemma of uncontrolled environmental pollution by implicating strict actions against substandard gasoline.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Acir IH, Guenther K (2018) Endocrine-disrupting metabolites of alkylphenol ethoxylates—a critical review of analytical methods, environmental occurrences, toxicity, and regulation. Sci Total Environ 635:1530–1546
Agha F, Sadaruddin A, Khatoon N (2005) Effect of environmental lead pollution on blood lead levels in traffic police constables in Islamabad, Pakistan. J Pak Med Assoc 55(10):410
Akiibinu MO, Ogundahunsi OA, Ogunyemi EO (2012) Inter-relationship of plasma markers of oxidative stress and thyroid hormones in schizophrenics. BMC Res Notes 5(1):169–172
Antonio-Garcia MT, Masso-Gonzalez EL (2008) Toxic effects of perinatal lead exposure on the brain of rats: involvement of oxidative stress and the beneficial role of antioxidants. Food Chem Toxicol 46(6):2089–2095
Barbosa F, Sertorio JT, Gerlach RF, Tanus-Santos JE (2010) Clinical evidence for lead-induced inhibition of nitric oxide formation. Arch Toxicol 80(12):811–816
Basha R, Rajarami GR (2010) Developmental exposure to lead and late life abnormalities of nervous system. Indian J Exp Biol 48(7):636–641
Bjørklund G, Dadar M, Aaseth J (2018) Delayed-type hypersensitivity to metals in connective tissue diseases and fibromyalgia. Environ Res 161:573–579
Blaine J, Chonchol M, Levi M (2014) Renal control of calcium, phosphate and magnesium homeostasis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10(7):1257–1272
Bonfiglioli R, Mattioli S, Armstrong TJ, Graziosi F, Marinelli F, Farioli A, Violante FS (2013) Validation of the ACGIH TLV for hand activity level in the OCTOPUS cohort: a two-year longitudinal study of carpal tunnel syndrome. Scand J Work Environ Health 1:155–163
Bredt DS, Snyder SH (1994) Transient nitric oxide synthase neurons in embryonic cerebral cortical plate, sensory ganglia, and olfactory epithelium. Neuron 13(2):301–313
Cauwe B, Opdenakker G (2010) Intracellular substrate cleavage: a novel dimension in the biochemistry, biology and pathology of matrix metalloproteinases. Crit Rev Biochem Molec Biol 45(5):351–423
Chaurasia SS, Kar A (1997) Protective effects of vitamin E against lead-induced deterioration of membrane associated type-I iodothyronine 5′-monodeiodinase (5′ DI) activity in male mice. Toxicology 124(3):203–209
De-Luca C, Papa M (2017) Matrix metalloproteinases, neural extracellular matrix, and central nervous system pathology. Progr Mol Biol Transl Sci 148:167–202
Fernandez AM, Hervas R, Dominguez-Fraile M, Garrido VN, Gomez-Gutierrez P, Vega M, Vitorica J, Perez JJ, Aleman IT (2016) Blockade of the interaction of calcineurin with FOXO in astrocytes protects against amyloid-β-induced neuronal death. J Alzheimer’s Dis 52:1471–1478
Filippini T, Heck JE, Malagoli C, Giovane CD, Vinceti M (2015) A review and meta-analysis of outdoor air pollution and risk of childhood leukemia. J Environ Sci Health C 33(1):36–66
Flora G, Gupta D, Tiwari A (2012) Toxicity of lead: a review with recent updates. Interdiscip Toxicol 5(2):47–58
Furman JL, Norris CM (2014) Calcineurin and glial signaling: neuroinflammation and beyond. J Neuroinflamm 11(1):158
Gillis BS, Arbieva Z, Gavin IM (2012) Analysis of lead toxicity in human cells. BMC Genom 13(1):344
Gurer H, Ercal N (2000) Can antioxidants be beneficial in the treatment of lead poisoning? Free Rad Biol Med 29(10):927–945
Hao L, Du M, Lopez-Campistrous A, Fernandez-Patron C (2004) Agonist-induced activation of matrix metalloproteinase-7 promotes vasoconstriction through the epidermal growth factor–receptor pathway. Circ Res 94(1):68–76
Jacob JM, Karthik C, Saratale RG, Kumar SS, Prabakar D, Kadirvelu K, Pugazhendhi A (2018) Biological approaches to tackle heavy metal pollution: a survey of literature. J Environ Manag 217:56–70
Kakkar P, Das B, Viswanathan PN (1984) A modified spectrophotometric assay of superoxide dismutase. Indian J Biochem Biol 21:130–132
Kasten-Jolly J, Heo Y, Lawrence DA (2011) Central nervous system cytokine gene expression: modulation by lead. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 25(1):41–54
Koedrith P, Young RS (2011) Advances in carcinogenic metal toxicity and potential molecular markers. Int J Mol Sci 12(12):9576–9595
Kumawat KL, Kaushik DK, Goswami P, Basu A (2014) Acute exposure to lead acetate activates microglia and induces subsequent bystander neuronal death via caspase-3 activation. Neurotoxicology 41:143–153
Moreira EG, Magalhaes D, Rosa GJ, Barros SB, Vassilieff VS, Vassillieff I (2001) Antioxidant defense in rat brain regions after developmental lead exposure. Toxicology 169(2):145–151
Moron MS, Depierre JW, Mannervik B (1979) Levels of glutathione, glutathione reductase and glutathione-S-transferase activities in rat lung and liver. Biochem Biophys Acta 582:67–72
Nascimento RA, Mendes G, Possomato-Vieira JS, Gonçalves-Rizzi VH, Kushima H, Delella FK, Dias-Junior CA (2015) Metalloproteinase inhibition protects against reductions in circulating adrenomedullin during lead-induced acute hypertension. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 116(6):508–515
Nicole LW, Suzanne MC (2006) Matrix metalloproteinases, their production by monocytes and macrophages and their potential role in HIV-related diseases. J Leukocyte Biol 80:1052–1066
Ohkawa H, Ohishi N, Yagi K (1979) Assay for lipid peroxides in animal tissues by thiobarbituric acid reaction. Anal Biochem 95:351–358
Prasad N, Majeti V (2013) Heavy metal stress in plants: from biomolecules to ecosystems. Springer, Berlin
Rehman K, Fatima F, Waheed I, Akash MSH (2018) Prevalence of exposure of heavy metals and their impact on health consequences. J Cell Biochem 119(1):157–184
Rizzi E, Castro MM, Fernandes K, Barbosa F, Arisi GM, Garcia-Cairasco N, Bendhack LM, Tanus-Santos JE, Gerlach RF (2009) Evidence of early involvement of matrix metalloproteinase-2 in lead-induced hypertension. Arch Toxicol 83(5):439–449
Roe J, Kuether C (1943) Estimation of ascorbic acid. J Biol Chem 147:3999
Rosenberg HR (1992) Chemistry and physiology of the vitamins. Interscience Publisher, New York, pp 452–453
Rosenberg GA (2009) Matrix metalloproteinases and their multiple roles in neurodegenerative diseases. Lancet Neurol 8(2):205–216
Sadiq S, Ghazala Z, Chowdhury A, Büsselberg D (2012) Metal toxicity at the synapse: presynaptic, postsynaptic, and long-term effects. J Toxicol 2012:1–42
Sawicki G, Leon H, Sawicka J, Sariahmetoglu M, Schulze CJ, Scott PG, Szczesna-Cordary D, Schulz R (2005) Degradation of myosin light chain in isolated rat hearts subjected to ischemia-reperfusion injury. Circulation 112(4):544–552
Sharma B, Singh S, Siddiqi NJ (2014) Biomedical implications of heavy metals induced imbalances in redox systems. Biomed Res Int 2014:1–26
Singh Z, Chadha P, Sharma S (2013) Evaluation of oxidative stress and genotoxicity in battery manufacturing workers occupationally exposed to lead. Toxicol Int 20(1):95
Sinha AK (1972) Colorimetric assay of catalase. Anal Biochem 47(2):389–394
Sung MM, Schulz CG, Wang W, Sawicki G, Bautista-López NL, Schulz R (2007) Matrix metalloproteinase-2 degrades the cytoskeletal protein α-actinin in peroxynitrite mediated myocardial injury. J Mol Cell Cardiol 43(4):429–436
Szklarczyk A, Conant K, Owens DF, Ravin R, McKay RD, Gerfen C (2007) Matrix metalloproteinase-7 modulates synaptic vesicle recycling and induces atrophy of neuronal synapses. Neuroscience 149(1):87–98
Tan C, Lu S, Wang Y, Zhu Y, Shi T, Lin M, Deng Z, Wang Z, Song N, Li S, Yang P (2017) Long-term exposure to high air pollution induces cumulative DNA damages in traffic policemen. Sci Total Environ 593:330–336
Verstraeten SV, Aimo L, Oteiza PI (2008) Aluminium and lead: molecular mechanisms of brain toxicity. Arch Toxicol 82(11):789–802
Wani AL, Ara A, Usmani JA (2015) Lead toxicity: a review. Interdiscip Toxicol 8(2):55–64
Xu Y, Wang Y, Zhao M, Hou B, Peng L, Zheng M, Wu J, Peng S (2011) Lead detoxification activities and ADMET hepatotoxicities of a class of novel 5-(1-carbonyl-L-amino-acid)-2, 2- dimethyl-[1, 3] dithiolane-4-carboxylic acids. Bioorgan Med Chem Lett 21(6):1754–1757
Acknowledgements
The authors greatly acknowledge the support of the University of Lahore for performing this study and analyzing all biochemical attributes.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
Authors declares no conflict of interest.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Malik, A., Ashraf, M.A.B., Khan, M.W. et al. Implication of Physiological and Biochemical Variables of Prognostic Importance in Lead Exposed Subjects. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 78, 329–336 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-019-00673-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-019-00673-2