Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Home, school, and community violence exposure and emotional and conduct problems among low-income adolescents: the moderating role of age and sex

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to assess whether violence exposure is associated with emotional/conduct problems, when adjusting for confounders/covariates and controlling for comorbidity, and to investigate interactions between violence exposure and sex and/or age.

Methods

This cross-sectional study evaluated a community-based sample of 669 in-school 11–15-year-olds. A three-stage probabilistic sampling plan included a random selection of census units, eligible households, and target child. Multivariable logistic regression investigated the effect of severe physical punishment by parents, peer victimization at school, and community violence on the study outcomes (adolescent-reported emotional/conduct problems identified by the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire/SDQ) when controlling for confounders (resilience, parental emotional warmth, maternal education/unemployment/anxiety/depression) and covariates (age, sex, stressful life events, parental rejection).

Results

Considering interactions, emotional problems were associated with community violence victimization among girls, while conduct problems were associated with severe physical punishment among the younger, suffering peer aggression among the oldest, bullying victimization among girls, and witnessing community violence among boys. Desensitization (less emotional problems with greater violence exposure) was noted among the youngest exposed to severe physical punishment and the oldest who witnessed community violence.

Conclusion

Age and sex are moderators of the association between violence exposure and emotional/conduct problems. Interventions at local health units, schools, and communities could reduce the use of harsh physical punishment as a parental educational method, help adolescents deal with peer aggression at school and keep them out of the streets by increasing the usual five hours in school per day and making free sports and cultural/leisure activities available near their homes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) (2020) UNICEF data: Monitoring the situation of children and women - Measurement of mental health among adolescents at the population level (MMAP). https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-health/mental-health/mmap/. Accessed 09 Apr 2021

  2. United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) (2017) UNICEF data: Monitoring the situation of children and women - Violence. https://data.unicef.org/topic/adolescents/violence/. Accessed 09 Apr 2021

  3. Bywaters P, Bunting L, Davidson G, Hanratty J, Mason W, McCartan C et al (2016) The relationship between poverty, child abuse and neglect: An evidence review. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/295812966_The_relationship_between_poverty_child_abuse_and_neglect_an_evidence_review. Accessed 09 Apr 2021

  4. Jansen DE, Veenstra R, Ormel J, Verhulst FC, Reijneveld SA (2011) Early risk factors for being a bully, victim, or bully/victim in late elementary and early secondary education. The longitudinal TRAILS study. BMC Public Health 11(1):1–7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-440

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Larke C (2014) Adolescents’ perceptions and understandings of the risk and protective factors related to community violence exposure in a low-income community in Cape Town. Dissertation, University of the Western Cape. Larke_c_mpsych_chs_2014%20(1).pdf. Accessed 09 Apr 2021

  6. Vitolo YLC, Fleitlich-Bilyk B, Goodman R, Bordin IAS (2005) Parental beliefs and child-rearing attitudes and mental health problems among schoolchildren. Rev Saude Publica 39:716–724. https://www.scielosp.org/article/rsp/2005.v39n5/716-724/en/. Accessed 09 Apr 2021

  7. Curto BM, Paula CS, Nascimento R, Murray J, Bordin IA (2011) Environmental factors associated with adolescent antisocial behavior in a poor urban community in Brazil. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 46(12):1221–1231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-010-0291-2

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Murray J, Anselmi L, Gallo EAG, Fleitlich-Bilyk B, Bordin IA (2013) Epidemiology of childhood conduct problems in Brazil: systematic review and meta-analysis. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 48(10):1527–1538. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-013-0695-x

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. LeMoult J, Humphreys KL, Tracy A, Hoffmeister JA, Ip E, Gotlib IH (2019) Meta-analysis: Exposure to early life stress and risk for depression in childhood and adolescence. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 59(7):842–855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2019.10.011

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Brunstein-Klomek A, Barzilay S, Apter A, Carli V, Hoven CW, Sarchiapone M et al (2019) Bi-directional longitudinal associations between different types of bullying victimization, suicide ideation/attempts, and depression among a large sample of European adolescents. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 60(2):209–215. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12951

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Bowes L, Maughan B, Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Arseneault L (2010) Families promote emotional and behavioural resilience to bullying: evidence of an environmental effect. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 51(7):809–817. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02216.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Hardaway CR, Sterrett-Hong E, Larkby CA, Cornelius MD (2016) Family resources as protective factors for low-income youth exposed to community violence. J Youth Adolesc 45(7):1309–1322. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0410-1

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Pierre CL, Burnside A, Gaylord-Harden NK (2020) A longitudinal examination of community violence exposure, school belongingness, and mental health among African-American adolescent males. School Ment Health 12(2):388–399. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-020-09359-w

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Lambert SF, Bettencourt AF, Bradshaw CP, Ialongo NS (2013) Early predictors of urban adolescents’ community violence exposure. J Aggress Maltreat Trauma 22(1):26–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2013.743944

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Devenish B, Hooley M, Mellor D (2017) The pathways between socioeconomic status and adolescent outcomes: A systematic review. Am J Commun Psychol 59(1–2):219–238. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12115

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. March-Llanes J, Marqués-Feixa L, Mezquita L, Fañanás L, Moya-Higueras J (2017) Stressful life events during adolescence and risk for externalizing and internalizing psychopathology: a meta-analysis. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 26(12):1409–1422. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-017-0996-9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Miranda MC, Affuso G, Esposito C, Bacchini D (2016) Parental acceptance–rejection and adolescent maladjustment: mothers’ and fathers’ combined roles. J Child Fam Stud 25(4):1352–1362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0305-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Atiqul Haque M, Janson S, Moniruzzaman S, Rahman AF, Islam SS, Mashreky SR et al (2019) Children’s exposure to physical abuse from a child perspective: a population-based study in rural Bangladesh. PLoS ONE 14(2):e0212428. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212428

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Malta DC, Porto DL, Crespo CD, Silva MM, Andrade SS, Mello FC et al (2014) Bullying in Brazilian school children: analysis of the National Adolescent School-based Health Survey (PeNSE 2012). Rev Bras Epidemiol 17(suppl 1):92–105. https://doi.org/10.1590/1809-4503201400050008

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Malhotra S, Sahoo S (2018) Antecedents of depression in children and adolescents. Ind Psychiatry J 27(1):11. https://doi.org/10.4103/ipj.ipj_29_17

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Fatori D, Bordin IA, Curto BM, De Paula CS (2013) Influence of psychosocial risk factors on the trajectory of mental health problems from childhood to adolescence: a longitudinal study. BMC Psychiatry 13(1):31. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-31

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Azeredo CM, Santos IS, Barros AJ, Barros FC, Matijasevich A (2017) Maternal depression and bullying victimization among adolescents: results from the 2004 Pelotas cohort study. Depress Anxiety 34(10):897–907. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22662

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Nomaguchi K, Fettro MN (2020) Children’s bullying involvement and maternal depressive symptoms. Soc Sci Med 245:112695. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112695

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Windle G (2011) What is resilience? a review and concept analysis. Rev Clin Gerontol 21(2):152–169. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959259810000420

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Fredkove WM, Gower AL, Sieving RE (2019) Association among internal assets, bullying, and emotional distress in eighth grade students. J Sch Health 89(11):883–889. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12833

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Kim-Cohen J, Moffitt TE, Caspi A, Taylor A (2004) Genetic and environmental processes in young children’s resilience and vulnerability to socioeconomic deprivation. Child Dev 75(3):651–668. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00699.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Rothenberg WA, Lansford JE, Bornstein MH, Chang L, Deater-Deckard K, Di Giunta L et al (2020) Effects of parental warmth and behavioral control on adolescent externalizing and internalizing trajectories across cultures. J Res Adolesc 30(4):835–855. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12566

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  28. Karlsson E, Stickley A, Lindblad F, Schwab-Stone M, Ruchkin V (2014) Risk and protective factors for peer victimization: a 1-year follow-up study of urban American students. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 23(9):773–781. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-013-0507-6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Buckner JC, Beardslee WR, Bassuk EL (2004) Exposure to violence and low-income children’s mental health: direct, moderated, and mediated relations. Am J Orthopsychiatry 74(4):413–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.74.4.413

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Yen CF, Huang MF, Kim YS, Wang PW, Tang TC, Yeh YC et al (2013) Association between types of involvement in school bullying and different dimensions of anxiety symptoms and the moderating effects of age and gender in Taiwanese adolescents. Child Abuse Negl 37(4):263–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.01.004

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. McGee ZT, Logan K, Samuel J, Nunn T (2017) A multivariate analysis of gun violence among urban youth: the impact of direct victimization, indirect victimization, and victimization among peers. Cogent Soc Sci 3(1):1328772. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2017.1328772

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Bordin IA, Duarte CS, Ribeiro WS, Paula CS, Coutinho ES, Sourander A et al (2018) Violence and child mental health in Brazil: the Itaboraí youth study methods and findings. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res 27(2):e1605. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.1605

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE). Sinopse do Censo Demográfico 2010 por Estado e Município: População Residente. http://www.censo2010.ibge.gov.br/sinopse/index.php?uf=33&dados=1. Accessed 09 Apr 2021

  34. Woerner W, Fleitlich-Bilyk B, Martinussen R, Fletcher J, Cucchiaro G, Dalgalarrondo P et al (2004) The Strengths and difficulties questionnaire overseas: evaluations and applications of the SDQ beyond Europe. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 13(2):ii47-54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-004-2008-0

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Goodman A, Goodman R (2009) Strengths and difficulties questionnaire as a dimensional measure of child mental health. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 48(4):400–403. https://doi.org/10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181985068

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Kleinbaum DG, Kupper LL, Muller KE, Nizam A (1998) Applied regression analysis and other multivariable methods. Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, Pacific Grove

    Google Scholar 

  37. Aiken LS, West SG (1991) Multiple regression: testing and interpreting interactions. Sage, Newbury Park

    Google Scholar 

  38. Halabi F, Ghandour L, Dib R, Zeinoun P, Maalouf FT (2018) Correlates of bullying and its relationship with psychiatric disorders in Lebanese adolescents. Psychiatry Res 261:94–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.12.039

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Zhu J, Yu C, Zhang W, Bao Z, Jiang Y, Chen Y et al (2016) Peer victimization, deviant peer affiliation and impulsivity: predicting adolescent problem behaviors. Child Abuse Negl 58:39–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.06.008

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Lin S, Yu C, Chen W, Tian Y, Zhang W (2018) Peer victimization and aggressive behavior among Chinese adolescents: delinquent peer affiliation as a mediator and parental knowledge as a moderator. Front Psychol 9:1036. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01036

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  41. Lin S, Yu C, Chen J, Zhang W, Cao L, Liu L (2020) Predicting adolescent aggressive behavior from community violence exposure, deviant peer affiliation and school engagement: a one-year longitudinal study. Child Youth Serv Rev 111:104840. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.104840

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Bacchini D, Concetta Miranda M, Affuso G (2011) Effects of parental monitoring and exposure to community violence on antisocial behavior and anxiety/depression among adolescents. J Interpers Violence 26(2):269–292. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260510362879

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Margolin G, Gordis EB (2004) Children’s exposure to violence in the family and community. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 13(4):152–155. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00296.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Heleniak C, King KM, Monahan KC, McLaughlin KA (2018) Disruptions in emotion regulation as a mechanism linking community violence exposure to adolescent internalizing problems. J Res Adolesc 28(1):229–244. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12328

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Kersten L, Vriends N, Steppan M, Raschle NM, Praetzlich M, Oldenhof H et al (2017) Community violence exposure and conduct problems in children and adolescents with conduct disorder and healthy controls. Front Behav Neurosci 11:219. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2017.00219

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Kennedy TM, Ceballo R (2016) Emotionally numb: desensitization to community violence exposure among urban youth. Dev Psychol 52(5):778. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000112

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Gaylord-Harden NK, Dickson D, Pierre C (2016) Profiles of community violence exposure among African American youth: an examination of desensitization to violence using latent class analysis. J Interpers Violence 31(11):2077–2101. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515572474

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Cooley-Quille M, Boyd RC, Frantz E, Walsh J (2001) Emotional and behavioral impact of exposure to community violence in inner-city adolescents. J Clin Child Psychol 30(2):199–206. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15374424JCCP3002_7

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Ng-Mak DS, Salzinger S, Feldman RS, Stueve CA (2004) Pathologic adaptation to community violence among inner-city youth. Am J Orthopsychiatry 74(2):196–208. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.74.2.196

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Foster H, Brooks-Gunn J (2009) Toward a stress process model of children’s exposure to physical family and community violence. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 12(2):71–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-009-0049-0

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Wang M, Liu L (2018) Reciprocal relations between harsh discipline and children’s externalizing behavior in China: a 5-year longitudinal study. Child Dev 89(1):174–187. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12724

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. McDonald CC, Richmond TR (2008) The relationship between community violence exposure and mental health symptoms in urban adolescents. J Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs 15(10):833–849. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2850.2008.01321.x

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Foster H, Brooks-Gunn J (2015) Children’s exposure to community and war violence and mental health in four African countries. Soc Sci Med 146:292–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.10.020

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Musicaro RM, Spinazzola J, Arvidson J, Swaroop SR, Goldblatt Grace L, Yarrow A et al (2019) The complexity of adaptation to childhood polyvictimization in youth and young adults: recommendations for multidisciplinary responders. Trauma Violence Abuse 20(1):81–98. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838017692365

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Paula CS, Lauridsen-Ribeiro E, Wissow L, Bordin IA, Evans-Lacko S (2012) How to improve the mental health care of children and adolescents in Brazil: actions needed in the public sector. Braz J Psychiatry 34(3):334–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rbp.2012.04.001

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Ribeiro MCSDA, Barata RB, Almeida MFD, Silva ZPD (2006) Perfil sociodemográfico e padrão de utilização de serviços de saúde para usuários e não-usuários do SUS-PNAD 2003 [Sociodemographic profile and utilization patterns of the public health care system (SUS) – PNAD 2003]. Cien Saude Colet 11(4):1011–1022. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-81232006000400022

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Anisio Teixeira National Institute for Educational Research and Studies, Ministry of Education (INEP/MEC) (2016) Overview of the Brazilian education system. http://download.inep.gov.br/acoes_internacionais/pisa/documentos/2016/pisa_overview_of_the_brazilian_education_system.pdf. Accessed 09 Apr 2021

  58. Angloinfo Brazil. Schooling and education: School hours. https://www.angloinfo.com/how-to/brazil/family/schooling-education/school-hours. Accessed 09 Apr 2021

  59. Rønning JA, Handegaard BH, Sourander A (2004) Self-perceived peer harassment in a community sample of Norwegian school children. Child Abuse Negl 28(10):1067–1079

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Arora CM, Thompson DA (1987) Defining bullying for a secondary school. Educ Child Psychol 4:110–120

    Google Scholar 

  61. Arora T (1994) Measuring bullying with the “Life in school” checklist. Pastor Care Educ 12(3):11–15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Bordin IA, Duarte CS, Peres CA, Nascimento R, Curto BM, Paula CS (2009) Severe physical punishment: risk of mental health problems for poor urban children in Brazil. Bull World Health Organ 87:336–344

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Richters JE, Saltzman W (1990) Survey of Exposure to Community Violence: Self Report Version. Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317316974_Survey_of_Exposure_to_Community_Violence_Self_Report_Version. Accessed 09 Apr 2021

  64. Hjemdal O, Friborg O, Stiles TC, Martinussen M, Rosenvinge JH (2006) A new scale for adolescent resilience: grasping the central protective resources behind healthy development. Meas Eval Couns Dev 39(2):84–96

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Von Soest T, Mossige S, Stefansen K, Hjemdal O (2010) A validation study of the resilience scale for adolescents (READ). J Psychopathol Behav Assess 32(2):215–225

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Castro J, Toro J, Van der Ende J, Arrindell WA (1993) Exploring the feasibility of assessing perceived parental rearing styles in Spanish children with the EMBU. Int J Soc Psychiatry 39(1):47–57

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Perris C, Jacobsson L, Linndström H, von Knorring L, Perris H (1980) Development of a new inventory for assessing memories of parental rearing behaviour. Acta Psychiatr Scand 61(4):265–274

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. World Health Organization (1994) A User’s guide to the self-reporting questionnaire (SRQ). World Health Organization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  69. Pynoos R, Rodriguez N, Steinberg A, Stuber M, Frederick C (1998) The University of California at Los Angeles posttraumatic stress disorder reaction Index (UCLA-PTSD RI) for DSM-IV (Revision 1). UCLA Trauma Psychiatry Program, Los Angeles

    Google Scholar 

  70. Steinberg AM, Brymer MJ, Decker KB, Pynoos RS (2004) The University of California at Los Angeles post-traumatic stress disorder reaction index. Curr Psychiatry Rep 6(2):96–100

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Rua Botucatu 740, São Paulo, SP, 04038-030, Brazil

    Isabel Altenfelder Bordin & Cristiane S. Paula

  2. Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Tromsø, NO-9037, Tromsø, Norway

    Bjørn Helge Handegård

  3. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Distúrbios do Desenvolvimento, Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Rua da Consolação 896 (Edifício 28 Consolação), São Paulo, SP, 01302-000, Brazil

    Cristiane S. Paula

  4. Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University - New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1051 Riverside Drive Unit #43, New York, NY, 10032, USA

    Cristiane S. Duarte

  5. Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Tromsø, NO-9037, Tromsø, Norway

    John Andreas Rønning

Authors
  1. Isabel Altenfelder Bordin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Bjørn Helge Handegård
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Cristiane S. Paula
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Cristiane S. Duarte
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. John Andreas Rønning
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Isabel Altenfelder Bordin.

Ethics declarations

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 54 KB)

Supplementary file2 (DOCX 76 KB)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Bordin, I.A., Handegård, B.H., Paula, C.S. et al. Home, school, and community violence exposure and emotional and conduct problems among low-income adolescents: the moderating role of age and sex. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 57, 95–110 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-021-02143-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-021-02143-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation