Summary
The paper reviews published data on the strengths and stiffnesses of a number of building materials at the high rates of straining or loading that they may experience as a result of impacts or similar accidental loads. Relevant data on these materials—steel, aluminium, concrete, brickwork, glass, plastics, and wood—are very varied in their adequacy. Most emphasis is given to steel and concrete. Data on them and on some of the other materials are presented graphically in a uniform manner suitable for use in design.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alder, J.F., Phillips, V.A.—The effect of strain rate and temperature on the resistance of aluminium, copper and steel to compression, J. Inst. Metals, Vol. 83, 1955, pp. 80–86.
Aspden, R.J., Campbell, J.D.—The effect of loading rate on the elastoplastic flexure of steel beams, Proc. Roy. Soc., Series A, Vol. 278, 1966, pp. 266–285.
Austin, A.L., Steidel, R.F.—The tensile properties of some engineering materials at high rates of strain, Proc. Amer. Soc. Testing Materials, Vol. 59, 1959, pp. 1292–1306.
Bailey, J.A., Singer, A.R.E.—Effect of strain rate and temperature on the resistance and deformation of aluminium, two aluminium alloys, and lead, J. Inst. Metals, Vol. 92, 1963–1964, pp. 404–408.
Baker, T.C., Preston, F.W.—Fatigue of glass under static loads, J. Appl. Mech., Vol. 17, 1946, pp. 170–178.
Belobrov, I.K., Shcherbina, V.I.—Effect of rate of loading, bending and torsion on the strength of reinforced concrete members, Collection of papers edited by A.A. Gvozdev, Scientific Institute for Concrete and Reinforced Concrete (NII Zh B), Moscow, 1970, pp. 37–87 (in Russian).
Bush, A.J.—Dynamic fracture toughness tests on A 302-B steel, Impact testing of metals, Amer. Soc. Testing Materials, STP 466, 1970, pp. 259–280.
Bodner, S.R.—Strain rate effects in dynamic loading of structures. Colloquium on Behaviour of Materials Under Dynamic Loading. Amer. Soc. Mech. Engin., New York, 1965, pp. 93–105.
Campbell, J.D.—Dynamic yielding of mild steel, Acta Metall., Vol. 1, 1953, pp. 706–710.
Campbell, J.D.—Dynamic plasticity: macroscopic aspects, Materials Science and Engineering, Vol. 12, 1973, pp. 3–21.
Campbell, J.D., Cooper, R.H.—Yield and flow of lowcarbon steel at medium strain rates, Conference on the Physical Basis of Yield and Fracture, Inst. Phys. and Phys. Soc., London, 1966, pp. 77–87.
Campbell, J.D., Duby, J.—The yield behaviour of mild steel in dynamic compression, Proc. Roy. Soc., Series A, Vol. 236, 1956, pp. 24–40.
Campbell, J.D., Duby, J.—Delayed yield and other dynamic loading phenomena in a medium-carbon steel, Conference on the Properties of Materials at High Rates of Strain, Inst. Mech. Engin., London, 1957, pp. 214–220.
Campbell, J.D., Ferguson, W.G.—The temperature and strain-rate dependence of the shear strength of mild steel, Phil. Mag., Vol. 21, 1970, pp. 63–82.
Campbell, J.D., Maiden, C.J.—The effect of impact loading on the static yield strength of a medium-carbon steel, J. Mech. and Phys. Solids, Vol. 6, 1957, p. 53–62.
Charles, R.J.—Static fatigue of glass, J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 29, 1958, pp. 1549–1560.
Chang, C.H.—High-speed tensile testing using explosives, J. Inst. Metals, Vol. 98, 1970, pp. 78–85.
Clark, D.S.—The behaviour of metals under dynamic loading, Trans. Amer. Soc. Metals, Vol. 46, 1954, pp. 34–62.
Clark, D.S., Duwez, P.E.—The influence of strain rate on some tensile properties of steel, Proc. Amer. Soc. Testing Materials, Vol. 50, 1950, pp. 560–575.
Clark, D.S., Wood, D.S.—The time delay for the initiation of plastic deformation at rapidly applied constant stress, Proc. Amer. Soc. Testing Materials, Vol. 49, 1949, pp. 717–737.
Costello, E. de L.—Yield strength of steel at an extremely high rate of strain. Conference on the Properties of Materials at High Rates of Strain, Inst. Mech. Engin., London, 1957, pp. 13–21.
Cottrell, A.H., Bilby, B.A.—Dislocation theory of yielding and strain ageing of iron, Proc. Phys. Soc., Section A, Vol. 62, 1949, pp. 49–62.
Dietz, A.G.H., Gailus, W.J., Yurenka, S.—Effect of speed of test upon strength properties of plastics, Proc. Amer. Soc. Testing Materials, Vol. 48, 1948, pp. 1160–1186.
Dietz, A.G.H., McGarry, E.J.—Effect of speed in plastics testing, Symposium on Speed of Testing, Amer. Soc. Testing Materials, STP 185, 1956.
Dowling, A.R., Harding, J., Campbell, J.D.—The dynamic punching of metals, J. Inst. Metals, Vol. 98, 1970, pp. 215–224.
Duwez, P.E., Clark, D.S.—An experimental study of the propagation of plastic deformation under conditions of longitudinal impact, Proc. Amer. Soc. Testing Materials, Vol. 47, 1947, pp. 502–522.
Eftis, J., Krafft, J.M.—A comparison of the initiation and the rapid propagation of a crack in a mild steel plate, Trans. Amer. Soc. Mech. Engin., Vol. 87D, 1965, pp. 257–263.
Ernsberger, F.M.—Strength of glass, Eighth International Congress on Glass, Society of Glass Technology, Sheffield, 1969, pp. 123–139.
Evans, R.H.—Effect of rate of loading on the mechanical properties of some materials, J. Inst. Civil Engin., Vol. 18, 1942, pp. 296–306.
Evans, R.H.—Effect of rate of loading on some mechanical properties of concrete, Proceedings of a Conference on Non-Metallic Brittle Materials, Butterworths Scientific Publications, London, 1958, pp. 175–192.
Garner, R.R.—Behaviour of yield and ultimate strength of steel under dynamic loading, J. Mat., Amer. Soc. Testing Materials, Vol. 5, 1970, pp. 618–632.
Gibson, J.—The behaviour of metals under tensile loads of short duration, Proc. Inst. Mech. Engin., Vol. 1B, 1952–1953, pp. 536–550.
Goldsmith, W.—Impact, Arnold, London, 1960.
Green, H.—Impact strength of concrete, Proc. Inst. Civil Engin., Vol. 28, 1964, pp. 383–396.
Griffith, A.A.—The phenomena of rupture and flow in solids, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., Series A, Vol. 221, 1920, pp. 163–198.
Hansen, R.J., Liepins, A.A.—Behaviour of bond under dynamic loading, J. Amer. Concr. Inst., Vol. 59, 1962, pp. 563–582.
Hansen, R.J., Nawy, E.G., Shah, J.M.—Response of concrete shear keys to dynamic loading, J. Amer. Concr. Inst., Vol. 32, 1961, pp. 1475–1490.
Harding, J.—Effect of high strain rate on the room-temperature strength and ductility of five alloy steels, J. Iron Steel Inst., Vol. 210, 1972, pp. 425–432.
Harding, J.R., Laird, R.T., Beech, D.G.—Effect of rate of loading and type of packing on measured strength of bricks, Proc. British Ceram. Soc., Vol. 21, 1973, pp. 7–23.
Hatano, T., Tsutsumi, H.—Dynamical compressive deformation and failure of concrete under earthquake load, Proceedings of the Second World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Science Council of Japan, Tokyo, 1960, Vol. III, pp. 1963–1978.
Hauser, F.E., Simmons, J.A., Dorn, J.E.—Strain rate effects in plastic wave propagation, Conference on Response of Metals to High Velocity Deformation, Interscience, New York, 1961, pp. 93–114.
Hendrickson, J.A., Wood, D.S.—The effect of rate of stress application and temperature on the upper yield stress of annealed mild steel, Trans. Amer. Soc. Metals, Vol. 50, 1958, pp. 498–516.
Hughes, B.P., Gregory, R.—The impact strength of concrete using Green's ballistic pendulum, Proc. Inst. Civil Engin., Vol. 41, 1968, pp. 731–750.
Hughes, B.P., Gregory, R.—Concrete subject to high rates of loading in compression, Mag. Concr. Research, Vol. 24, 1972, pp. 25–36.
Johnson, J.E., Wood, D.S., Clark, D.S.—Delayed yielding in annealed low carbon steel under compression impact, Proc. Amer. Soc. Testing Materials, Vol. 53, 1953, pp. 755–764.
Johnson, W.—Impact strength of materials, Arnold, London, 1972.
Jones, P.G., Richart, F.E.—The effect of testing speed on strength and elastic properties of concrete, Proc. Amer. Soc. Testing Materials, Vol. 36, 1936, pp. 380–391.
Kanninen, M.F., Mukherjee, A.K., Rosenfield, A.R., Hahn, G.T.—The speed of ductile-crack propagation and the dynamics of flow in metals, Symposium on Mechanical Behaviour of Materials Under Dynamic Loads, Springer, New York, 1968, pp. 96–133.
Kendall, D.P., Davidson, T.E.—The effect of strain rate on yielding in high strength steels. Trans. Amer. Soc. Mech. Engin., J. Basic Engin., Vol. 88, 1966, pp. 37–44.
Kolsky, H.—An investigation of the mechanical properties of materials at very high rates of loading, Proc. Phys. Soc., Section B, Vol. 62, 1949, pp. 676–700.
Krafft, J.M., Sullivan, A.M.—Effect of grain size and carbon content on the yield delay-time of mild steel, Trans. Amer. Soc. Metals, Vol. 51, 1959, pp. 643–658.
Krafft, J.M., Sullivan, A.M.—On effects of carbon and manganese content and of grain size on dynamic strength properties of mild steel, Trans. Amer. Soc. Metals, Vol. 55, 1962, pp. 101–118.
Krafft, J.M., Sullivan, A.M.—Effects of speed and temperature on crack toughness and yield strengths in mild steel, Trans. Amer. Soc. Metals, Vol. 56, 1963. pp. 160–175.
Leblois, C., Massonnet, C.—Influence of the upper yield stress on the behaviour of mild steel in bending and torsion. Intern. J. Mech. Sc., Vol. 14, 1972, pp. 95–115.
Lengyel, B., Mohitpur, M.—Dynamic stress/strain data to large strains. J. Inst. Metals, Vol. 100, 1972, pp. 1–5.
Lindholm, U.S.—Some experiments with the split Hopkinson pressure bar. J. Mech. and Phys. Solids, Vol. 12, 1964 pp. 317–335.
Lindholm, U.S.—Dynamic deformation of metals, Colloquium on Behaviour of Materials Under Dynamic Loading, Amer. Soc. Mech. Engin., New York, 1965, pp. 42–61.
Lindholm, U.S.—Some experiments in dynamic plasticity under combined stress, Sumposium on Mechanical Behaviour of Materials Under Dynamic Loads, Springer, New York, 1968, pp. 77–95.
Lindholm, U.S., Bessey, R.L., Smith, G.V.—Effect of strain rate on yield strength, tensile strength, and elongation of three aluminium alloys, J. Mat., Amer. Soc. Testing Materials, Vol. 6, 1971, pp. 119–133.
Lindholm, U.S., Yeakley, L.M.—A dynamic biaxial testing machine, Proc. Soc. Exper. Stress Anal., Vol. 24, pt 1, 1967, pp. 1–7.
Lindholm, U.S., Yeakley, L.M.—High strain-rate testing: tension and compression, Proc. Soc. Exper. Stress Anal., Vol. 25 pt 1, 1968, pp. 1–9.
Linska, J.A.—Effect of rapid loading on the compressive and flexural strength of wood, Report No. 1767, US Forest Products Laboratory, 1950.
Maiden, C.J., Campbell, J.D.—The static and dynamic strength of a carbon steel at low temperatures, Phil. Mag., Vol. 3, 1958, pp. 872–885.
Maiden, C.J., Green, S.J.—Compressive strain rate tests on six selected materials at strain rates from 10 −2 to 104 in/in/s, J. Appl. Mech., Vol. 33, 1966, pp. 496–504.
Malvern, L.E.—The propagation of longitudinal waves of plastic deformation in a bar of material exhibiting a strain rate effect, J. Appl. Mech., Vol. 18, 1951, pp. 203–208.
Manjoine, M.J.—The influence of rate of strain and temperature on yield stresses of mild steel. Trans. Amer. Soc. Mech. Engin., Vol. 66, 1944, pp. A211-A218.
Markwardt, L.J., Liska, J.A.—Speed of testing of wood: factors in its control and its effect on strength, Proc. Amer. Soc. Testing Materials, Vol. 48, 1948, pp. 1139–1159.
Markwardt, L.J., Liska, J.A.—The influence of rate of loading on the strength of wood and wood-base materials. Symposium on Speed of Testing, Amer. Soc. Testing Materials, STP 185, 1956.
Marsh, K.J., Cambell, J.D.—The effect of strain rate on the post-yield flow of mild steel, J. Mech. and Phys. Solids. Vol. 11, 1963, pp. 49–63.
McHenry, D., Shideler, J.J.—Review of data on effect of speed in mechanical testing of concrete. Symposium on Speed of Testing, Amer. Soc. Testing Materials, STP 185, 1956, pp. 72–82.
McLean, D.—Mechanical properties of metals, Wiley, New York, 1962.
Mould, R.E.—Strength and static fatigue of abraded glass under controlled ambient conditions: Parts III and IV, J. Amer. Ceram. Soc., Vol. 43, 1960, pp. 160–167; Vol. 44, 1961, pp. 481–491.
Mould, R.E., Southwick, R.D.—Strength and static fatigue of glass under controlled ambient conditions: Part I and II, J. Amer. Ceram. Soc., Vol. 42, 1959, pp. 542–547 and 582–592.
Nadai, A., Manjoine, M.J.—High-speed tension tests at elevated temperatures: Parts II and III, J. Appl. Mech., Vol. 8, 1941, pp. A77-A91.
Nicholas, T.—Strain-rate and strain-rate history effects in several metals in torsion, Proc. Soc. for Exper. Stress Anal., Vol. 28 pt 2, 1971, pp. 370–374.
Ogorkiewicz, R.M. (editor).—Engineering properties of thermoplastics, Wiley-Interscience, London, 1970.
Oxley, P.L.B., Stevenson, M.G.—Measuring stress/strain properties at very high strain rates using a machining test, J. Inst. Metals, Vol. 95, 1967, pp. 308–313.
Preston, F.W.—The mechanical properties of glass, J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 13, 1942, pp. 623–643.
Proctor, B.A., Whitney, I., Johnson, J.W.—The strength of fused silica, Proc. Roy. Soc., Series A, Vol. 297, 1967, pp. 543–557.
Rao, N.R., Lohrmann, M., Tall, L.—Effect of strain rate on the yield stress of structural steels, J. Mat., Amer. Soc. Testing Materials, Vol. 1, 1966, pp. 241–262.
Rawlings, B.—The dynamic behaviour of mild steel in pure flexure, Proc. Roy. Soc., Series A, Vol. 275, 1963, pp. 528–543.
Ripperger, E.A.—Dynamic plastic behaviour of aluminium, copper, and iron, Colloquium on Behaviour of Materials Under Dynamic Loading, Amer. Soc. Mech. Engin., New York, 1965, 62–80.
Rosenfield, A.R., Hahn, G.T.—Numerical descriptions of the ambient low-temperature and high-strain rate flow and fracture of plain carbon steel, Trans. Amer. Soc. Metals, Vol. 59, 1966, pp. 962–980.
Schmitz, G.K., Metcalfe, A.G.—Stress corrosion of E-glass fibres, I & EC Prod. Research and Develop., Vol. 5, 1966. pp. 1–8.
Schultz, A.B.—Dynamic behaviour of metals under tensile impact, J. Appl. Mech., Vol. 37, 1970, pp. 765–777.
Smith, G.V.—Stress-strain-time-temperature relations in metallic materials, Symposium on Stress-Strain-Time-Temperature Relationships in Materials, Amer. Soc. Testing Materials, STP 325, 1962, pp. 35–59.
Smith, J.E.—Tension tests of materials at strain rates up to 200 s −1, Mater. Res. and Stand, Vol. 3, 1963, pp. 713–718.
Smith, R.C., Pardue, T.E., Vigness, L.—The mechanical properties of certain steels as indicated by axial dynamic load tests, Proc. Soc. Exper. Stress Anal., Vol. 13, 1956, pp. 183–197.
Sparks, P.R., Menzies, J.B.—The effect of rate of loading on plain concrete, Mag. Concr. Research, Vol. 25, 1973, pp. 73–80.
Steidel, R.F., Makerov, C.E.—The tensile properties of some engineering materials at moderate rates of strain, Amer. Soc. Testing Materials Bull., No. 247, 1960, pp. 57–64.
Sugiyama, H.—On the effect of loading time on the strength properties of wood, Wood Sc. and Technol., Vol. 1, 1967, pp. 289–303.
Symonds, P.S.—Viscoplastic behaviour in response of structures to dynamic loading, Colloquium on Behaviour of Materials Under Dynamic Loading, Amer. Soc. Mech. Engin., New York, 1965, pp. 106–124.
Taylor, D.B.C.—The dynamic straining of metals having definite yield points, J. Mech. and Phys. Solids, Vol. 3, 1954, pp. 38–46.
Taylor, D.B.C.—Non-uniform yield in a mild steel under dynamic straining, Conference on the properties of materials at high rates of strain, Inst. Mech. Engin., London, 1957, pp. 229–238.
Taylor, D.B.C.—Dynamic stress and deformation in a mild steel at normal and low temperatures, Conference on Response of Metals to High Velocity Deformation, Interscience, New York, 1961, pp. 77–91.
Taylor, Sir G.I.—The testing of materials at high rates of loading, J. Inst. Civil Engin., Vol. 26, 1946, pp. 486–520.
Taylor, N.W.—Mechanism of failure of glass and similar brittle solids, J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 18, 1947, pp. 943–955.
Thompson, N.J., Cousins, E.W.—Explosion tests on glass windows, effect on glass breakage of varying the rate of pressure application, J. Amer. Ceram. Soc., Vol. 32, 1949, pp. 313–315.
Vigness, I., Krafft, J.M., Smith, R.C.—Effect of loading history upon the yield strength of a plain carbon steel, Conference on the Properties of Materials at High Rates of Strain, Inst. Mech. Engin., London, 1957, pp. 138–146.
Watstein, D.—Effect of straining rate on the compressive strength and elastic properties of concrete, Proc. Amer. Concr. Inst., Vol. 49, 1953, pp. 729–744.
Watstein, D., Boresi—The effect of loading rate on the compressive strength and elastic properties of plain concrete, Report No. 1523, Nat. Bur. Stand., Washington DC, 1952.
Wood, D.S., Clark, D.S.—The influence of temperature upon the time delay for yielding in annealed mild steel, Trans. Amer. Soc. Metals, Vol. 43, 1951, pp. 571–586.
Wright, R.N., Hall, W.J.—Loading rate effects in structural steel design, Proc. Amer. Soc. Civil Engin., Vol. 90 pt ST5, 1964, pp. 11–35.
Wright, R.N., Hall, W.J., Hamada, H.S.—The behaviour of structural steel under slow and rapid reversal of loading, Proc. Amer. Soc. Testing Materials, Vol. 64, 1964, pp. 612–635.
Zener, C., Holloman, J.H.—The effect of strain rate upon plastic flow of steel, J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 15, 1944, pp. 22–32.
Zener, C., Holloman, J.H.—Plastic flow and rupture in metals, Trans. Amer. Soc. Metals, Vol. 33, 1944, pp. 163–215.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mainstone, R.J. Properties of materials at high rates of straining or loading. Mat. Constr. 8, 102–116 (1975). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02476328
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02476328