Abstract
Microalgae feeds are currently used in relatively small amounts in aquaculture, mainly for the production of larvae and juvenile shell- and finfish, as well as for raising the zooplankton required for feeding of juvenile animals. The blue-green algaSpirulina is used in substantial amounts (over 100 t y−1) as a fish and shrimp feed, and even larger markets can be projected if production costs could be reduced. Another potential large-scale application of microalgae is the cultivation ofHaematococcus for the production of the carotenoid astaxanthin, which gives salmon flesh its reddish color. In the long-term microalgae biomass high in lipids (omega-3 fatty acids) may be developed as substitutes for fish oil-based aquaculture feeds. In shrimp ponds the indigenous algal blooms supply a part of the dietary requirements of the animals, but it is difficult to maximize algal productivities. A separate algal production system could feed the shrimps and minimize the need for added feed. Bivalves feed essentially exclusively on marine microalgae throughout their life cycle. The development of cultivation technologies for such microalgae would allow the onshore production of these animals, with greatly improved product quality and safety.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Barclay WR, Terry KL, Nagle NJ, Weissman JC, Goebel RP (1987) Potential of new strains of marine and inland salt-adapted microalgae for aquaculture. J. World Aquacult. Soc. 18: 218–228.
Benemann JR (1990) The future of microalgal biotechnology. In: Cresswell RC, Rees TAV, Shah N (eds), Algal and Cyanobacterial Biotechnology. Longman Scientific & Technical, Essex, 317–337.
Benemann JR, Tillett DT, Weissman JC (1987) Microalgae biotechnology. Trends in Biotechnology 5: 47–53.
Barnabe G (ed.) (1990) Aquaculture. Ellis Horwood, New York.
Borowitzka MA, Borowitzka LJ (eds) (1988) Micro-Algal Biotechnology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Borowitzka MA, Huisman JM, Osborn A (1991) Culture of the astaxanthin-producing green algaHaematococcus pluvialis. I. Effects of nutrients on growth and cell type. J. appl. Phycol. 3: 295–304.
Boussiba S, Vonshak A (1991) Astaxanthin accumulation in the green algaHaematococcus pluvialis. Plant Cell Physiol. 32: 1077–1082.
Bubrick P (1991) Production of astaxanthin fromHaematococcus. Bioresource Technol. 38: 2377–239.
Castagna M (1980) Methods of GrowingMercenaria mercenaria from postlarval to preferred size seed for field planting. Aquaculture 39: 355–364.
Claus C (1981) Trends in nursery rearing of bivalve molluscs. In Claus C (ed.), Proc. International Workshop on Nursery Culturing of Bivalve Molluscs. University of Ghent, Belgium, 319–336.
Cuzon G, Santos RD, Hew M, Poullaouec G (1981) Use ofSpirulina in shrimp (Panaeus japonicum) diet. J. World Maricult. Soc. 12: 282–291.
Day JG, Edwards AP, Rodgers GA (1991) Development of an industrial scale process for the heterotrophic production of microalgal mollusc feed. Bioresource Technol. 38: 295–249.
DePauw N (1981) Use of production of microalgae as food for nursery bivalves. In Claus C (ed.), Proc. Intl. Workshop on Nursery Culturing of Bivalve Molluscs. University of Ghent, Belgium, 35–63.
DePauw N, Persoone G (1988) Microalgae in aquaculture. In: Borowitzka MA, Borowitzka LJ (eds), Micro-Algal Biotechnology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 197–221.
Divakaran S, Duerr EO (1987) Characteristics of a blue-green algae (Spirulina platensis) preserved by acidulation with sulfuric acid. J. agr. Food Chem. 35: 568–571.
Donaldson J (1991) Commercial production of microalgae at Coast Oyster Company. In: Fulks W, Main KL (eds) Rotifer and Microalgae Culture Systems, Oceanic Institute, Hawaii, pp. 229–236.
Doumenge F (1990) Aquaculture in Japan. In: Barnabe G (ed.), Aquaculture. Ellis Horwood, New York.
Enright CT, Newkirk GF, Craige JS, Castell JD (1986). Evaluation of phytoplankton as diets for juvenileOstrea edulis. J. exp. mar. Biol. Ecol. 96: 1–13.
Epifanio CE (1975) Culture of bivalve molluscs in recirculating systems, nutritional requirements. In: Proc. of the 1st Intl. Conf. on Aquacultural Nutrition. World Mariculture Society, 173–198.
Epifanio CE (1981) Phytoplankton and yeast as foods for juvenile bivalves: a review of research at the University of Delaware. In: Pruder GD (ed.), Proc. 2nd Intl. Conf. Aquaculture Nutrition. World Mariculture Soc., 292–304.
Epifanio CE (1979a) Comparison of yeast and algal diets for bivalve molluscs, Aquaculture 16: 187–192.
Epifanio CE (1979b) Growth of bivalve molluscs. Aquaculture 18: 1–12.
Epifanio CE, Valenti CC, Turk CL (1981) A comparison ofPhaeodactylum tricornutum andThalassiosira pseudonana as food for the oyster,Crassostrea virginica. Aquaculture 23: 347–353.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) (1989) Aquaculture Production (1984–1987). FAO Fisheries Circular No. 815, Revision 1.
Fulks W, Mains KL (eds) (1991) Rotifer and Microalgae Culture Systems. Oceanic Institute, Hawaii.
Gaither WS (1981) Progress and problems with recirculating system aquaculture. In: Colwell R (ed.), Biotechnology in the Marine Sciences. Wiley Interscience, New York, 61–80.
Goldstein BB (1984) The commercial cultivation ofCrassostrea gigans in a land-based, tropical, managed food chain. Aquaculture 39: 393–402.
Halver JE (ed.) (1989) Fish Nutrition. 2nd edn. Academic Press, San Diego.
Hardy RW (1989) Practical feeding salmon and trout. In: Lowell T (ed.), Nutrition and Feeding of Fish. Van Norstrand Reinhold, New York, 185.
Hanson RH (1990)Spirulina algae improves Japanese fish feeds. Aquaculture Magazine, Nov./Dec.
Hirano M, Mori H, Miura Y, Matsunaga N, Nakamura N, Matsunaga T (1990) Gamma-linolenic acid production by microalgae. Appl. Biochem. Biotech. 24/25: 183–191.
Hunter B, Pruder G, Wyban J (1987) Biochemical composition of pond biota, shrimp ingesta, and relative growth ofPenaeus vannamei in earthen ponds. J. World Aquacult. Soc. 18: 162–173.
Jackson A (1988) Growth, nutrition and feeding. In: Laird L, Needham T (eds), Salmon and Trout Farming. Ellis Horwood Ltd., Chichester, 202.
Jeffrey SW, Garland CD, Brown MR (1990) Microalgae in Australian mariculture. In: Clayton MN, King RJ (eds), Biology of Marine Plants. Longman Cheshire, Melbourne, 400–414.
Kafuku T, Ikenoue H (ed.) (1983) Modern Methods of Aquaculture in Japan. Developments in Aquaculture and Fisheries Sciences, 11. Kodansha LTD, Tokyo.
Laing I, Verdugo CG (1991) Nutritional value of spray-driedTetraselmis suecica for juvenile bivalves. Aquaculture 92: 207–218.
Laing I, Millican PF (1991) Dried-algae diets and indoor nursery cultivation of Manila clam juveniles. Aquaculture 95: 75–87.
Laird L, Needham T (eds) (1988) Salmon and Trout Farming. Ellis Horwood Ltd, Chichester.
Langdon CJ, Siegfried CA (1984) Progress in the development of artificial diets for bivalve filter feeders. Aquaculture 39: 135–153.
Langdon CJ, Levine DM (1983) Technological innovations in the development of microparticulate feeds for marine suspension feeders. Proc. Ocean 83: 1005–1008.
Lim C, Persyn A (1989) Practical feeding-peaneid shrimps. In: Lowell T (ed.), Nutrition and Feeding of Fish. Van Norstrand Reinhold, New York, 205–215.
Lim C (1989) Practical feeding — Tilapias. In Lowell T (ed.), Nutrition and Feeding of Fish. Van Norstrand Reinhold, New York, 163–177.
Manzi JJ (1985) Clam Aquaculture. In Huner' JV, Brown EE (eds), Crustacean and Mollusk Aquaculture in the United States. AVI Publishing Co., Westport CT, 275–309.
Mori T, Muranaka T, Miki W, Yamaguchi K, Konosu S, Watanabe T (1987) Pigmentation of cultured sweet smelt fed diets supplemented with a blue-green algaSpirulina maxima. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi 53: 433–438.
National Fisheries Statistics Program (1986) Fisheries of the United States 1985. Current Fisheries Statistics No. 8368. National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Washington D.C.
New MB (1987) Feed and Feeding of Fish and Shrimp. United Nations Development Programme, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, ADCP/REP/87/26, Rome.
Noble RC (1990) Death on the half-shell: the health hazards of eating shellfish. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 33: 313–322.
Persoone C, Claus C (1980) Mass culture of algae: a bottleneck in the nursery culturing of molluscs. In: Shelef C, Soeder C (eds), Algae Biomass. Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, Amsterdam, 265–286.
Pruder CD, Bolton ET, Fraunce SF (1977) System configuration and performance bivalve molluscan mariculture. College of Marine Studies, University of Delaware, DEL-SG-1-77.
Pruder CD (1981) Aquatic production systems: algae. In: Claus C (ed.), Proc. Int. Workshop on Nursery Culturing of Bivalve Molluscs, State University of Ghent, Belgium, 219–226.
Regenstein JM, Regenstein CE (1990) Introduction to Fish Technology, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Richmond A (ed.) (1986) Handbook of Microalgal Mass Culture. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
Rodhouse PG, Roden C, Somerville-Jacklin ME (1983) Nutritional value of microalgal mass cultures to the oysterOstrea edulis L. Aquaculture 32: 11–18.
Ross E, Dominy W (1990) The nutritional value of dehydrated blue-green algae (Spirulina platensis) for poultry. Poultry Science 69: 794–800.
Roughan PG (1989)Spirulina: A source of dietary gamma-linolenic acid? J. Sci. Food Agric. 47: 85–93.
Ryther JH, Goldman JC (1975) Microbes as food in mariculture. Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 29: 429–443.
Schroeder GL, Wohlfarth G, Alkon A, Halevy A, Krueger H (1990) The dominance of algal-based food webs in fish ponds receiving chemical fertilizers plus organic manures. Aquaculture 86: 219–229.
Severin-Reyssac J, Pletikosic M (1991) Cyanobacteria in fish ponds. Aquaculture 88: 1–20.
Siegel RA (1989) The growing influence of aquaculture in U.S. seafood markets: salmon and shrimp. In: Aquaculture: A Review of Recent Experience. OECD, Paris.
Stickney RR (1986) Tilapia. In: Stickney RR (ed.), Culture of Nonsalmonoid Freshwater Fishes. CRC Press, Boca Raton, 58–72.
Storebakken T, Choubert G (1991) Flesh pigmentation of rainbow trout fed astaxanthin or canthaxanthin at different feeding rates in freshwater and saltwater. Aquaculture 95: 289–295.
Tredici MR, Carlozzi P, Chini Z, Materassi R (1991) A vertical alveolar pane (VAP) for outdoor mass cultivation of microalgae and cyanobacteria. Bioresource Technol. 38: 153–159.
Ukeles R (1980) American experience in the mass culture of microalgae for feeding larvae of the american oysterCrassostrea virginica. In: Shelef G, Soeder C (eds), Algae Biomass. Elsevier/North Holland Press, Amsterdam, 287–306.
Vonshak A (1991) Recent advances in microalgae biotechnology. Biotech. Adv. 8: 709–727.
Walne PR (1970) Studies on the food value of 19 genera of algae to juvenile bivalves of the generaOstrea, Crassostrea, Mercenaria, andMytilus. Fisheries Investigations (London) Series II 26: 1–62.
Walsh DT (1985) Dimensioning of a mass algal culture facility for the temperate zone nursery culture of bivalve molluscs. Presentation at the World Mariculture Soc. 1985 Ann. Meet. Orlando Fl.
Yong YYR, Lee YK (1991) Do carotenoids play a photoprotective role in the cytoplasm ofHaematococcus lacustris (Chlorophyta)? Phycologia 30: 257–261.
Yongmanitchai W, Ward P (1988) Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Alternative Sources of Production. Process Biochem. 24: 117–125.
Yongmanitchai W, Ward P (1991) Growth and omega-3 fatty acid production byPhaedactylum tricornutum under different culture conditions. Appl. environ. Microbiol. 57: 419–425.
Zhu Y, Yang Y, Wan J, Hua D, Mathias JA (1990) The effect of manure application rate and frequency upon fish yield in integrated fish farm ponds. Aquaculture 91: 233–251.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Benemann, J.R. Microalgae aquaculture feeds. J Appl Phycol 4, 233–245 (1992). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02161209
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02161209