Skip to main content
Log in

Activity metabolism of the toad (Bufo americanus): Ecological consequences of ontogenetic change

  • Published:
Journal of comparative physiology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Summary

Following metamorphosis, juvenile toads form dense, heliothermic aggregations on the margins of the ponds from which they emerge. After a period of growth and development, during which body mass increases ten-fold, the juveniles disperse from the pond and assume the solitary, nocturnal habits that characterize adult toads.

The dispersal of the toads coincides with the culmination of ontogenetic changes in activity metabolism. Unlike adults, juvenile toads exhaust rapidly when exercised and exhibit a low aerobic component of total metabolic scope. Values of aerobic scope for sustained activity ranged from 0.5 ml O2/(g·h) for the smallest juveniles to 1.0 ml O2/(g·h) for adults. The capacity of juveniles for oxygen consumption increases rapidly with growth, reaching the level of mature animals immediately prior to dispersal.

In contrast to aerobic metabolism, anaerobic scope was independent of body size. Whole body lactate content after a 1 min bout of vigorous activity was elevated above the resting level by 0.14 mg lactate/g for both juvenile and adult animals.

The elevated body temperatures that are achieved by basking juvenile toads probably hasten their physiological development and increase their capacity for aerobic metabolism.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Arnold SJ, Wassersug RJ (1978) Differential predation on metamorphic anurans by garter snakes (Thamnophis): social behavior as a possible defense. Ecology 59:1014–1022

    Google Scholar 

  • Beiswenger RE (1978) Response ofBufo tadpoles (Amphibia, Anura, Bufonidae) to laboratory gradients of temperature. J Herpetol 12:499–504

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennett AF (1974) Enzymatic correlates of activity metabolism in anuran amphibians. Am J Physiol 226:1149–1151

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennett AF, Licht P (1974) Anaerobic metabolism during activity in amphibians. Comp Biochem Physiol [A] 48:319–327

    Google Scholar 

  • Black JH, Black JN (1969) Postmetamorphic basking aggregations of the boreal toad,Bufo boreas boreas. Can Field Nat 83:155–156

    Google Scholar 

  • Brattstrom BH (1962) Thermal control of aggregative behavior in tadpoles. Herpetologica 18:38–46

    Google Scholar 

  • Burke EM, Pough FH (1976) The role of fatigue in temperature resistance of salamanders. J Therm Biol 1:163–167

    Google Scholar 

  • Carey C (1979) Aerobic and anaerobic energy expenditure during rest and activity in montaneBufo b. boreas andRana pipiens. Oecologia 39:213–228

    Google Scholar 

  • Cushman JR, Packard GC, Boardman TJ (1976) Concentrations of lactic acid in noetenic and transformed tiger salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum) before and after activity. J Comp Physiol 112:273–281

    Google Scholar 

  • Emerson SB (1976) Burrowing in frogs. J Morphol 149:437–458

    Google Scholar 

  • Emerson SB (1979) The ilio-sacral articulation in frogs: form and function. Biol J Linn Soc 11:153–168

    Google Scholar 

  • Fry FEJ (1947) Effects of the environment on animal activity. Publ Ont Fish Res Lab 68:1–62

    Google Scholar 

  • Higginbotham AC (1939) Studies on amphibian activity, I. Preliminary report on the rhythmic activity ofBufo americanus americanus Holbrook andBufo fowleri Hinckley. Ecology 20:58–70

    Google Scholar 

  • Hillman SS, Withers PC (1979) An analysis of respiratory surface area as a limit to activity metabolism in anurans. Can J Zool 57:2100–2105

    Google Scholar 

  • Hutchison VH, Miller K (1979) Anaerobic capacity of amphibians. Comp Biochem Physiol [A] 63:213–216

    Google Scholar 

  • Hutchison VH, Whitford WG, Kohl M (1968) Relation of body size and surface area to gas exchange in anurans. Physiol Zool 41:65–85

    Google Scholar 

  • Lillywhite HB, Wassersug RJ (1974) Comments on a postmetamorphic aggregate ofBufo boreas. Copeia 1974:984–986

    Google Scholar 

  • Lillywhite HB, Licht P, Chelgren P (1973) The role of behavioral thermoregulation in the growth energetics of the toad,Bufo boreas. Ecology 54:375–383

    Google Scholar 

  • Mullally DP (1952) Habits and minimum temperature of the toadBufo boreas halophilus. Copeia 1952:274–276

    Google Scholar 

  • Pough FH (1977) The relationship between body size and blood oxygen affinity in snakes. Physiol Zool 50:77–87

    Google Scholar 

  • Pough FH (1978) Ontogenetic changes in endurance in water snakes (Natrix sipedon): physiological correlates and ecological consequences. Copeia 1978:69–74

    Google Scholar 

  • Pough FH (1980) Blood oxygen transport and delivery in reptiles. Am Zool 20:173–185

    Google Scholar 

  • Putnam RW (1979a) The role of lactic acid accumulation in muscle fatigue of anurans,Xenopus laevis andRana pipiens. J Exp Biol 82:35–52

    Google Scholar 

  • Putnam RW (1979b) The basis for differences in lactic acid content after activity in different species of anuran amphibians. Physiol Zool 52:509–519

    Google Scholar 

  • Seymour RS (1972) Behavioral thermoregulation by juvenile green toads,Bufo debilis. Copeia 1972:572–575

    Google Scholar 

  • Seymour RS (1973) Physiological correlates of forced activity and burrowing in the spadefoot toad,Scaphiopus hammondii. Copeia 1973:103–115

    Google Scholar 

  • Wassersug RJ (1975) The adaptive significance of the tadpole stage with comments on the maintenance of complex life cycles in anurans. Am Zool 15:405–417

    Google Scholar 

  • Wassersug RJ, Sperry DG (1977) The relationship of locomotion to differential predation onPseudacris triseriata (Anura: Hylidae). Ecology 58:830–839

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilbur HM (1977) Density-dependent aspects of growth and metamorphosis inBufo americanus. Ecology 58:196–200

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Taigen, T.L., Pough, F.H. Activity metabolism of the toad (Bufo americanus): Ecological consequences of ontogenetic change. J Comp Physiol B 144, 247–252 (1981). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00802763

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00802763

Keywords

Navigation