Abstract
The occurrence of saprophytic moulds in indoor environments and their potential hazards to human health are discussed. In addition to mesophilic species, xerophilic moulds appear to be common, often developing together with mites. Allergic and non-allergic symptoms are reported when patients are exposed to moulds in homes, schools and working places. Airconditioning systems are consistently involved with mould development. Complaints of eye-, nose- and throat-irritation as well as fatigue seem to be correlated with unpleasant odours produced by abundant mould growth, but the relationship between the symptoms and the odours is not understood. The role of air-borne mycotoxins is discussed.
Methods to detect moulds in indoor environments are described. Because no single method or cultivation medium is sufficient to detect all the various indoor moulds, a combination of air sampling, direct microscopic examination and cultivation on both standard and low water activity media is recommended.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Al-DooryY. and DobsonJ.F. (1984): Mould Allergy. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia.
Alexandrowicz J. and Smylx B. (1979): Mycotoxins and their role in oncogenesis with special reference to blood disease. - Polish med. Sci. Hist. Bull. pp. 25–30.
AlexandrowiczJ., Adamek T., Laskownicka Z., Porebska A., Zemburowa K. (1973): Studies of precipitating antibodies for Aspergillus flavus antigens in patients with proliferative diseases. - Matena medica Polon. Nov. 4 (17).
Austwick P.K.C. (1982): Humidifier fever - a mycologist's nightmare. In (Baxter M. ed.) Proc. Congr. Int. Soc. Human Animal Mycol.
BernsteinR.S., SoresenW.G., GarabrantD., ReauxC., TreitmanR.D. (1983): Exposures to respirable, airborne Penicillium from a contaminated ventilation system: clinical, environmetal and epidemiological aspects. - J. American industrial Hyg. Assoc. 44: 161–169.
Bronswijk TE.M.H. van (1981): House dust biology for allergologists, acarologists and mycologists. -NIB Publ. Zeist.
CampbellJ.A., KrydaM.J., TreuhaftM.W., MarxJ.J., RobertsR.C. (1983): Cheese workers' hypersensitivity pneumonitis. - Amer. Rev. Respir. Dis. 127: 495–496.
FranklandA.W. and FlayM.J. (1951): Dry rot as a cause of allergenic complaints. - Acta Allergol. 4: 186–200.
CariM., LavaudF. and PinonJ.M. (1983): Asthma à Penicillium candidum avec présence de précipitines chez un ouvrier fromages. - Bull. Soc. Fr. Mycol. Méd. 12: 135–137.
GellP.G.H., CoombsR.A. & LachmannP. (eds.) (1974): Clinical aspects of Immunology. 3rd edition section. Blackell Oxford.
GravesenS. (1984): The sedimentation method. In Jensen K.W. & Gravesen S.: Atlas of moulds in Europe causing respiratory allergy. ASK Publ. Copenhagen p. 59.
GravesenS. and JepsenJ.R. (1981): Luftfugtersyve. Et problem i den grafiske industri. - Ugeskrift for Laeger 14.3: 1211–1212.
Gravesen S., Larsen L. and Skov P. (1984): Aerobiology of schools and public institutions. Part of a study. Ecology Disease, in press.
HanschirikE. (1983): Schimmelbildung in Wohnungen. -Bau und Bodenkrresp BBK 3: 3–6.
HartogB.J. (1984): The detection and quantification of fungi in food. In Samson R.A., Hoekstra E.S. and van Oorschot C.A.N. (eds.). Introduction to Food-borne fungi. Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, Baarn, p. 206–211.
HintikkaE.L. (1978): Human stachybotryotoxicosis. In Willie T.D. and Morehouse L.G. (eds.). Mycotoxic fungi, mycotoxins, mycotoxicosis. An encyclopedic handbook. Vol. 3. Mycotoxicoses of man and plants: mycotoxin control and regulatory practices. Marcel Deker, New York, pp. 87–89.
HockingA.D. and PittJ.I. (1980): Dichloran-glycerol medium for enumeration of xerophilic fungi from low-moisture foods. - Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 39: 488–492.
Hyppel A. (1984): Finger print of a mould odor. In Indoor air: sensory and hyperreactivity reactions to sick buildings. Part 3. Proc. Third Conf. Indoor air quality and climate. Stockholm. pp. 443–447.
JensenK.W. and GravesenS. (eds.) (1984): Atlas of moulds in Europe causing respiratory allergy. ASK Publ. Copenhagen.
KamienskiE., StawckiS. and WasowiezE. (1974): Volatile flavor compounds produced by molds of Aspergillus Penicillium and Fungi Imperfecti. -Appl. Microbiol. 27: 1001–1004.
KamphausenP.A. (1982): Schimmelpilze durch moderne Lueftungsprobleme? - Baugewerbe 62: 34–42.
KauppinenK., KuulialaO., BlorkstenF. (1983): Allergenic properties of a feed protein of microfungal origin. - Clinical Allergy 13: 69–73.
KikuchiT., MimuraT., HarmayaK., YanoH., ArimotoT., MasadaY. and InoueT. (1974): Volatile metabolite of aquatic fungi. Identification of 6-pentyl-α-pvrone from Trichoderma and Aspergillus species. - Chem. Pharm. Bull. 22: 1946–1948.
KikuchiT., KadotaS., SueharaH., NishiA. and TsubakiK. (1981): Odorous metabolites of a fungus, Chaetomium globosum Kunze ex Fr. Identification of Geosmin, a mustysmelling compound. -Chem. Pharm. Bull. 29: 1782–1784.
KikuchiT., KadotaS., SueharaH., NishiA., TsubakiK., YanoH. and HarimavaK. (1983): Odourous metabolites of Fungi, Chaetomium globosum Kunze e Fr. and Botrytis cinerea Pers. ex Fr., and a blue-green alga, Phormidium tenue (Meneghini) Gomont. - Chem. Pharm. Bull. 31: 659–663.
KingA.D. and PittJ.I. (1979): Dichloran-rose-bengal medium for enumeration and isolation of moulds from foods. - Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 37: 959–964.
KozakP.P., GallupJ., CumminsL.H. and GillmanS.A. (1980): Currently available methods for home mold surveys. I. Descriptions of techniques. - Annals of Allergy 45: 85–89.
KurupV.P., BarboriakJ.J. and FinkJ.N. (1984): Hypersensitivity pneumonitis. In Al-Doory Y. and Domson J.F. (eds.) Mould Allergy. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, pp. 216–243.
LeupenM.J. (1982): Vocht in huis- problemen rond en in h.et binnenmilieu. - Natur en Techniek 50: 616–631.
LeupenM.J. and VarekampH. (1966): Some constructional and physical considerations concerning the micro-climatological conditions affecting growth of the house-dust mite (Dermatophatogoides). - Proc. 5th Interasthma Congress. Pressa Trajectina, Utrecht, p. 244.
LustgraafB. v.d. (1977): Xerophilic fungi in mattress dust. - Mykosen 20: 101–106.
LustgraafB. v.d. (1978): Ecological relationships between xerophilic fungi and house-dust mites (Acarida: Pyroglyphidae). - Oecologia 33: 351–359.
LustgraafB. v.d. and Bronswijk J.E.H.M. van (1977): Fungi living in house dust. - Ann. Allergy 39: 152.
LustgraafB. v.d. and JordeW. (1977): Pyroglyphid mites, xerophilic fungi and allergenic activity in dust from hospital mattresses. - Acta Allergol. 32: 406.
NorthrupS.C. and KilburnK.H. (1978): The role of mycotoxins:n human pulmonary disease. In Willie T.D. and Morehouse L.G. (eds.) Mycotoxic fungi, mycotoxins, mvcotoxicosis. An encyclopedic handbook. Vol. 3. Mycotoxicoses of man and plants: mycotoxin control and regulatory practices. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 91–108.
O'Brien I.M., Bull J., Creamer B., Sepulveda R., Harries M., Burge P.S. and Pepys J. (19978): Asthma and extrinsic allergic alveolitis due to Merulius lacrymans. - Clinical Allergy 8: 535–542.
PickeringC.A.C., MooreW.K.S., LaceyI., Holford-StrevensV.C. and PepysJ. (1976): Investigation of a respiratory disease with an airconditioning system. - Clinical Allergy 6: 109–118.
PittJ.I. (1975): Xerophilic fungi and the spoilage of foods of plant origin. In Duckworth R.B. (ed.). Water Relations of Foods. New York, Academic Press.
RijckaertG. (1981): Fast releasing allergens from some organisms living in house dust. - Ph. D. thesis, Univ. Nijmegen, Netherlands.
SaitoM., YamanishiT. and TsurutaO. (1979): Studies on the odor substances of Fungi. Part. 1. Identification of fungal odors produced on synthetic medium. - Rept. Natl. Food Res. Ind. 34: 67–69.
SamsonR.A., HoekstraE.S. and vanOorschotC.A.N. (1984): Introduction to Food-borne fungi. Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, Baarn.
SnellerM.R. (1984): Mould allergy and climate condition. In Al-Doory Y. and Domson J.F. (eds.). Mould Allergy. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia pp. 224–266.
SolomonW. (1984): Sampling techniques for airborne fungi. In: Mould allergy (Y. Al-Doory and J.F. Domson eds.), Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, pp. 41–65.
Spieksma F.T.M. (1967): The house dust mite Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus, producer of the house dust allergens. Thesis Leiden.
StaibF., FolkensU., TompakB., AbelT. and ThiefD. (1978a): A comparative study of antigens of Aspergillus fumigatus isolates from patients and soil of ornamental plants in the immuno diffusion test. - Zentbl. Bakt. Hyg. Abt. I, 242: 93.
StaibF., TompakB., ThielD. and AbelT. (1978b): Aspergillus fumigates in der Topferde von Zimmerpflanzen.- Bundesgesundheitsblatt 21: 209.
StaibF., TompakB., ThielD. and BlisseA. (1978c): Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillus niger in two potted ornamental plants, cactus (Epiphyllum truncatum) and Clivia miniata. Biological and epidemiological aspects. - Mycopathologia 66: 27.
StaibF. and RayendranC. (1980): Untersuchungen von Hydrokultur-Zimmerpflanzen auf menschenpathogene Aspergillus-Arten. - Hygiene und Medizin 5: 575–577.
StotzkyG. and SchenckS. (1974): Volatile organic compounds and microorganisms. In CRC Critical Reviews in Microbiology. - Baton Rouge USA, pp. 333–382.
ThörnqvistT. and LundströmH. (1982): Health hazards caused by fungi in stored wood chips. -Forest Products Journal 32: 29–32.
Urguhardt D.C.M. (1982): Condensation et development de moissures dans les maisons. - Batiment Int., pp. 88–99.
VoorhorstR., SpieksmaF.T.M. and VarekampH. (1969): House dust atopy and house dust mite Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus (Trouessart 1897). Stafleu's Scient. Publ. Co., Leiden.
WrayB.B. and OsteenK.G. (7975): Mycotoxinproducing fungi from house associated with leukemia.- Arch. Environ. Health 30: 571–573.
YamamotoK. (1961): Studies on the metabolic products of Oospora sp. Part. I. Isolation and purification of two new compounds and eburicoic acid. - Agric. Biol. Chem. 25: 400–404.
YamamotoK. Nitta and YamamotoY. (1962): Studies on the metabolic products of Oospora sp. (Oospora astrigens). Part III. Chemical structure of oosponol (0–2). - Agric. Biol. Chem. 26: 486–493.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Samson, R.A. Occurrence of moulds in modern living and working environments. Eur J Epidemiol 1, 54–61 (1985). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00162313
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00162313