Abstract
Prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) is one of the most prevalent and modifiable risk factors for somatic, behavioral, and neurological abnormalities. Affected individuals exhibit a wide range of such features referred to as fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). These are characterized by a more or less specific pattern of minor facial dysmorphic features, growth deficiency and central nervous system symptoms. Nevertheless, whereas the diagnosis of the full-blown fetal alcohol syndrome does not pose a major challenge, only a tentative diagnosis of FASD can be reached if only mild features are present and/or maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy cannot be verified. The respective disorders have lifelong implications. The teratogenic mechanisms induced by PAE can lead to various additional somatic findings and structural abnormalities of cerebrum and cerebellum. At the functional level, cognition, motor coordination, attention, language development, executive functions, memory, social perception and emotion processing are impaired to a variable extent. The long-term development is characterized by disruption and failure in many domains; an age-adequate independency is frequently not achieved. In addition to primary prevention, individual therapeutic interventions and tertiary prevention are warranted; provision of extensive education to affected subjects and their caregivers is crucial. Protective environments are often required to prevent negative consequences such as delinquency, indebtedness or experience of physical/sexual abuse.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Feldman HS, Jones KL, Lindsay S et al (2012) Prenatal alcohol exposure patterns and alcohol-related birth defects and growth deficiencies: a prospective study. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 36:670–676
Paintner A, Williams AD, Burd L (2012) Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders—implications for child neurology, part 2: diagnosis and management. J Child Neurol 27(3):355–356
Lewis SJ, Zuccolo L, Davey Smith G et al (2012) Fetal alcohol exposure and IQ at age 8: evidence from a population-based birth-cohort study. PLoS One 7:e49407
Kelly Y, Sacker A, Gray R et al (2012) Light drinking during pregnancy: still no increased risk for socioemotional difficulties or cognitive deficits at 5 years of age. J Epidemiol Community Health 66:41–48
Sood B, Delaney-Black V, Covington C et al (2001) Prenatal alcohol exposure and childhood behavior at age 6 to 7 years: I. Dose–response effect. Pediatrics 108:e34–e34
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2009) Alcohol use among pregnant and nonpregnant women of childbearing age—United States, 1991–2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 58:529–532
O’Leary CM (2004) Fetal alcohol syndrome: diagnosis, epidemiology, and developmental outcomes. J Paediatr Child Health 40:2–7
Astley SJ (2004) Diagnostic guide for fetal alcohol spectrum disorders the 4-digit diagnostic code. http://depts.washington.edu/fasdpn/pdfs/guide2004.pdf
Hoyme HE, May PA, Kalberg WO et al (2005) A practical clinical approach to diagnosis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: clarification of the 1996 institute of medicine criteria. Pediatrics 115:39–47
Chudley AE, Conry J, Cook JL et al (2005) Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: Canadian guidelines for diagnosis. Spectrum 172(5 Suppl):S1–S21
Stratton K, Howe C, Battaglia F (1996) Fetal alcohol syndrome: diagnosis, epidemiology, prevention, and treatment. National Academy Press, Washington, DC
Watkins RE, Elliott EJ, Wilkins A et al (2013) Recommendations from a consensus development workshop on the diagnosis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in Australia. BMC Pediatr 13:156
Astley SJ (2006) Comparison of the 4-digit diagnostic code and the Hoyme diagnostic guidelines for fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Pediatrics 118:1532–1545
Landgraf M, Nothacker M, Heinen F (2013) Diagnosis of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): German guideline version 2013. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 1–10
World Health Organization (1993) The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: diagnostic criteria for research. World Health Organization, Geneva
American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. DSM-IV-TR: 4th edn. Text Revision, Washington, DC
American Psychiatric Association (2013) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5. American Psychiatric, Washington, DC
May P, Blankenship J, Marais AS et al (2013) Approaching the prevalence of the full spectrum of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in a South African population-based study. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 37:818–830
May P, Gossage JP, Kalberg WO et al (2009) Prevalence and epidemiologic characteristics of FASD from various research methods with an emphasis on recent in-school studies. Dev Disabil Res Rev 15:176–192
May P, Fiorentino D, Coriale G et al (2011) Prevalence of children with severe fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in communities near Rome, Italy: new estimated rates are higher than previous estimates. Int J Environ Res Public Health 8:2331–2351
Kvigne VL, Leonardson GR, Neff-Smith M et al (2004) Characteristics of children who have full or incomplete fetal alcohol syndrome. J Pediatr 145:635–640
Lange S, Shield K, Rehm J, Popova S (2013) Prevalence of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in child care settings: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics 132:e980–e995
Alvik A, Aalen OO, Lindemann R (2013) Early fetal binge alcohol exposure predicts high behavioral symptom scores in 5.5-year-old children. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 37:1954–1962
May PA, Gossage JP, Marais A-S et al (2008) Maternal risk factors for fetal alcohol syndrome and partial fetal alcohol syndrome in South Africa: a third study. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 32:738–753
Coyne KL, de Costa CM, Heazlewood RJ, Newman HC (2008) Pregnancy characteristics of women giving birth to children with fetal alcohol syndrome in far North Queensland. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 48:240–247
May PA, Gossage JP (2001) Estimating the prevalence of fetal alcohol syndrome. A summary. Alcohol Res Health 25:159–167
Ballard MS, Sun M, Ko J (2012) Vitamin A, folate, and choline as a possible preventive intervention to fetal alcohol syndrome. Med Hypotheses 78:489–493
Esper LA, Furtado EF (2014) Identifying maternal risk factors associated with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: a systematic review. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry
Calvigioni D, Hurd YL, Harkany T, Keimpema E (2014) Neuronal substrates and functional consequences of prenatal cannabis exposure. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. doi:10.1007/s00787-014-0550-y
Odendaal HJ, Steyn DW, Elliott A, Burd L (2009) Combined effects of cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption on perinatal outcome. Gynecol Obstet Invest 67:1–8
Tiesler CMT, Heinrich J (2014) Prenatal nicotine exposure and child behavioural problems. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry
May PA, Tabachnick BG, Gossage JP et al (2013) Maternal factors predicting cognitive and behavioral characteristics of children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. J Dev Behav Pediatr 34:314–322
Alati R, Davey Smith G, Lewis SJ, Sayal K, Draper ES, Golding J, Fraser R, Gray R (2013) Effect of prenatal alcohol exposure on childhood academic outcomes: contrasting maternal and paternal associations in the ALSPAC study. PLoS One 8(10):e74844
Sulik KK, Johnston MC, Webb MA (1981) Fetal alcohol syndrome: embryogenesis in a mouse model. Science 214:936–938
Middaugh LD, Boggan WO (1991) Postnatal growth deficits in prenatal ethanol-exposed mice: characteristics and critical periods. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 15:919–926
Chen X, Coles CD, Lynch ME, Hu X (2012) Understanding specific effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on brain structure in young adults. Hum Brain Mapp 33:1663–1676
Bell SH, Stade B, Reynolds JN et al (2010) The remarkably high prevalence of epilepsy and seizure history in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 34:1084–1089
Chasnoff IJ, Wells AM, Telford E et al (2010) Neurodevelopmental functioning in children with FAS, pFAS, and ARND. J Dev Behav Pediatr 31:192–201
Spohr H-L, Willms J, Steinhausen H-C (2007) Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in young adulthood. J Pediatr 150(175–9):179
Astley SJ (2010) Profile of the first 1,400 patients receiving diagnostic evaluations for fetal alcohol spectrum disorder at the Washington State Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Diagnostic & Prevention Network. Can J Clin Pharmacol 17:e132–e164
Dou X, Wilkemeyer MF, Menkari CE et al (2013) Mitogen-activated protein kinase modulates ethanol inhibition of cell adhesion mediated by the L1 neural cell adhesion molecule. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110:5683–5688
Patten AR, Brocardo PS, Christie BR (2013) Omega-3 supplementation can restore glutathione levels and prevent oxidative damage caused by prenatal ethanol exposure. J Nutr Biochem 24:760–769
Ikonomidou C (2000) Ethanol-induced apoptotic neurodegeneration and fetal alcohol syndrome. Science 287:1056–1060
Light KE, Belcher SM, Pierce DR (2002) Time course and manner of Purkinje neuron death following a single ethanol exposure on postnatal day 4 in the developing rat. Neuroscience 114:327–337
Zhou FC, Sari Y, Powrozek TA (2005) Fetal alcohol exposure reduces serotonin innervation and compromises development of the forebrain along the serotonergic pathway. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 29:141–149
Gundogan F, Elwood G, Longato L et al (2008) Impaired placentation in fetal alcohol syndrome. Placenta 29:148–157
Gareri J, Brien J, Reynolds J, Koren G (2009) Potential role of the placenta in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Paediatr Drugs 11:26–29
Kane CJM, Phelan KD, Drew PD (2012) Neuroimmune mechanisms in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Dev Neurobiol 72:1302–1316
Perkins A, Lehmann C, Lawrence RC, Kelly SJ (2013) Alcohol exposure during development: impact on the epigenome. Int J Dev Neurosci 31:391–397
Luo J (2012) Mechanisms of ethanol-induced death of cerebellar granule cells. Cerebellum 11:145–154
Archibald SL, Fennema-Notestine C, Gamst A et al (2001) Brain dysmorphology in individuals with severe prenatal alcohol exposure. Dev Med Child Neurol 43:148–154
Astley SJ, Richards T, Aylward EH et al (2009) Magnetic resonance spectroscopy outcomes from a comprehensive magnetic resonance study of children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Magn Reson Imaging 27:760–778
O’Hare ED, Kan E, Yoshii J et al (2005) Mapping cerebellar vermal morphology and cognitive correlates in prenatal alcohol exposure. Neuroreport 16:1285–1290
Sowell ER, Mattson SN, Thompson PM et al (2001) Mapping callosal morphology and cognitive correlates: effects of heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Neurology 57:235–244
Yang Y, Phillips OR, Kan E et al (2012) Callosal thickness reductions relate to facial dysmorphology in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 36:798–806
Dodge NC, Jacobson JL, Molteno CD et al (2009) Prenatal alcohol exposure and interhemispheric transfer of tactile information: Detroit and Cape Town findings. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 33:1628–1637
Bookstein FL, Streissguth AP, Sampson PD et al (2002) Corpus callosum shape and neuropsychological deficits in adult males with heavy fetal alcohol exposure. Neuroimage 15:233–251
Fryer SL, Schweinsburg BC, Bjorkquist OA et al (2009) Characterization of white matter microstructure in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 33:514–521
Wozniak JR, Muetzel RL, Mueller BA et al (2009) Microstructural corpus callosum anomalies in children with prenatal alcohol exposure: an extension of previous diffusion tensor imaging findings. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 33:1825–1835
Opris I, Santos L, Gerhardt GA et al (2013) Prefrontal cortical microcircuits bind perception to executive control. Sci Rep 3:2285. doi:10.1038/srep02285
Clark CM, Li D, Conry J et al (2000) Structural and functional brain integrity of fetal alcohol syndrome in non-retarded cases. Pediatrics 105:1096–1099
Roussotte FF, Sulik KK, Mattson SN et al (2012) Regional brain volume reductions relate to facial dysmorphology and neurocognitive function in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Hum Brain Mapp 33:920–937
Nardelli A, Lebel C, Rasmussen C et al (2011) Extensive deep gray matter volume reductions in children and adolescents with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 35:1404–1417
Coles CD, Goldstein FC, Lynch ME et al (2011) Memory and brain volume in adults prenatally exposed to alcohol. Brain Cogn 75:67–77
Willoughby KA, Sheard ED, Nash K, Rovet J (2008) Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on hippocampal volume, verbal learning, and verbal and spatial recall in late childhood. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 14:1022–1033
Spadoni AD, Bazinet AD, Fryer SL et al (2009) BOLD response during spatial working memory in youth with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 33:2067–2076
Malisza KL, Buss JL, Bolster RB et al (2012) Comparison of spatial working memory in children with prenatal alcohol exposure and those diagnosed with ADHD: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. J Neurodev Disord 4:12. doi:10.1186/1866-1955-4-12
Mattson SN, Roesch SC, Fagerlund A et al (2010) Toward a neurobehavioral profile of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 34:1640–1650
Mattson SN, Roesch SC, Glass L et al (2013) Further development of a neurobehavioral profile of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 37:517–528
Aragón AS, Kalberg WO, Buckley D et al (2008) Neuropsychological study of FASD in a sample of American Indian children: processing simple versus complex information. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 32:2136–2148
Coles CD, Platzman KA, Raskind-Hood CL et al (1997) A comparison of children affected by prenatal alcohol exposure and attention deficit, hyperactivity disorder. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 21:150–161
Brown RT, Coles CD, Smith IE et al (1991) Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure at school age. II. Attention and behavior. Neurotoxicol Teratol 13:369–376
Bhatara V, Loudenberg R, Ellis R (2006) Association of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and gestational alcohol exposure: an exploratory study. J Atten Disord 9:515–522
Fryer SL, McGee CL, Matt GE et al (2007) Evaluation of psychopathological conditions in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Pediatrics 119:e733–e741
Glass L, Ware AL, Crocker N et al (2013) Neuropsychological deficits associated with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure are not exacerbated by ADHD. Neuropsychology 27(6):713–724
Coles CD, Lynch ME, Kable JA et al (2010) Verbal and nonverbal memory in adults prenatally exposed to alcohol. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 34:897–906
Jacobson JL, Dodge NC, Burden MJ et al (2011) Number processing in adolescents with prenatal alcohol exposure and ADHD: differences in the neurobehavioral phenotype. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 35:431–442
Crocker N, Vaurio L, Riley EP, Mattson SN (2009) Comparison of adaptive behavior in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 33:2015–2023
Kodituwakku PW, Kalberg W, May PA (2001) The effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on executive functioning. Alcohol Res Health 25:192–198
Grant T, Huggins J, Connor P et al (2004) A pilot community intervention for young women with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Community Ment Health J 40:499–511
Löser H (2000) Alkohol und Schwangerschaft: Embryopathie und Alkoholeffekte. Ther Umschau 57:1–7
Greenbaum RL, Stevens SA, Nash K et al (2009) Social cognitive and emotion processing abilities of children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: a comparison with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 33:1656–1670
Freunscht I (2007) Ab 18 fällt man durch das Raster Emotionale , soziale und berufliche Entwicklung junger Erwachsener mit Fetalem Alkoholsyndrom (FAS). Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster
O’Connor MJ, Paley B (2009) Psychiatric conditions associated with prenatal alcohol exposure. Dev Disabil Res Rev 15:225–234
Coggins TE, Timler GR, Olswang LB (2007) A state of double jeopardy: impact of prenatal alcohol exposure and adverse environments on the social communicative abilities of school-age children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch 38:117–127
Willford JA, Richardson GA, Leech SL, Day NL (2004) Verbal and visuospatial learning and memory function in children with moderate prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 28:497–507
Autti-Rämö I, Fagerlund A, Ervalahti N et al (2006) Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in Finland: clinical delineation of 77 older children and adolescents. Am J Med Genet A 140:137–143
McGee CL, Bjorkquist OA, Riley EP, Mattson SN (2010) Impaired language performance in young children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Neurotoxicol Teratol 31(2):71–75
Mattson SN, Crocker N, Nguyen TT (2011) Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: neuropsychological and behavioral features. Neuropsychol Rev 21:81–101
Domellöf E, Fagard J, Jacquet A-Y, Rönnqvist L (2011) Goal-directed arm movements in children with fetal alcohol syndrome: a kinematic approach. Eur J Neurol 18:312–320
Connor PD, Sampson PD, Streissguth AP et al (2006) Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on fine motor coordination and balance: a study of two adult samples. Neuropsychologia 44:744–751
O’Hare ED, Lu LH, Houston SM et al (2009) Altered frontal-parietal functioning during verbal working memory in children and adolescents with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Hum Brain Mapp 30:3200–3208
Hamilton DA, Kodituwakku P, Sutherland RJ, Savage DD (2003) Children with fetal alcohol syndrome are impaired at place learning but not cued-navigation in a virtual Morris water task. Behav Brain Res 143:85–94
Mattson SN, Roebuck TM (2002) Acquisition and retention of verbal and nonverbal information in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 26:875–882
Kaemingk KL, Mulvaney S, Halverson PT (2003) Learning following prenatal alcohol exposure: performance on verbal and visual multitrial tasks. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 18:33–47
O’Leary CM, Nassar N, Kurinczuk JJ et al (2010) Prenatal alcohol exposure and risk of birth defects. Pediatrics 126:e843–e850
Chen ML, Olson HC, Picciano JF et al (2012) Sleep problems in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. J Clin Sleep Med 8:421–429
Åse F, Ilona A-R, Mirjam K et al (2012) Adaptive behaviour in children and adolescents with foetal alcohol spectrum disorders: a comparison with specific learning disability and typical development. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 21:221–231
Larkby CA, Goldschmidt L, Hanusa BH, Day NL (2011) Prenatal alcohol exposure is associated with conduct disorder in adolescence: findings from a birth cohort. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 50:262–271
Disney ER, Iacono W, McGue M et al (2008) Strengthening the case: prenatal alcohol exposure is associated with increased risk for conduct disorder. Pediatrics 122:e1225–e1230
Alex K, Feldmann R (2012) Children and adolescents with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): better social and emotional integration after early diagnosis. Klin Padiatr 224:66–71
Streissguth AP, Bookstein FL, Barr HM et al (2004) Risk factors for adverse life outcomes in fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects. J Dev Behav Pediatr 25:228–238
Clark E, Lutke J, Minnes P, Ouellette-Kuntz H (2004) Secondary disabilities among adults with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder in British Columbia. J FAS Int 2:1–12
Olson HC, Feldman JJ, Streissguth AP et al (1998) Neuropsychological deficits in adolescents with fetal alcohol syndrome: clinical findings. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 22:1998–2012
Freunscht I, Feldmann R (2010) Young adults with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): social, emotional and occupational development. Klin Padiatr 223(1):33–37
Spohr H-L, Steinhausen H-C (2008) Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders and their persisting sequelae in adult life. Dtsch Arztebl Int 105:693–698
Fast DK, Conry J (2009) Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders and the criminal justice system. Dev Disabil Res Rev 15:250–257
Walloch JE, Burger PH, Kornhuber J (2011) What is known about the outcome as adults for children with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)/fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD)? Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr 80(6):320–326
Alati R, Al Mamun A, Williams GM et al (2006) In utero alcohol exposure and prediction of alcohol disorders in early adulthood: a birth cohort study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 63:1009–1016
Youngentob SL, Glendinning JI (2009) Fetal ethanol exposure increases ethanol intake by making it smell and taste better. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:5359–5364
Foltran F, Gregori D, Franchin L et al (2011) Effect of alcohol consumption in prenatal life, childhood, and adolescence on child development. Nutr Rev 69:642–659
Room R, Babor T, Rehm J (2005) Alcohol and public health. Lancet 365:519–530
Arnold K, Burke M, Decker A, Herzberg E, Maher M, Motz K, Nandu H, O´Donnel L, Pirmohamed A, Ybarra M (2013) Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: knowledge and screening practices of university hospital medical students and residents. J Popul Ther Clin Pharmacol 20(1):e18–25
Hutton HE, Chander G, Green PP et al (2014) A novel integration effort to reduce the risk for alcohol-exposed pregnancy among women attending urban STD clinics. Public Health Rep 129:56–62
Burns E, Gray R, Smith LA (2010) Brief screening questionnaires to identify problem drinking during pregnancy: a systematic review. Addiction 105:601–614
O’Connor MJ, Whaley SE (2007) Brief intervention for alcohol use by pregnant women. Am J Public Health 97:252–258
Morini L, Marchei E, Tarani L et al (2013) Testing ethylglucuronide in maternal hair and nails for the assessment of fetal exposure to alcohol: comparison with meconium testing. Ther Drug Monit 35:402–407
Gifford AE, Farkas KJ, Jackson LW et al (2010) Assessment of benefits of a universal screen for maternal alcohol use during pregnancy. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 88:838–846
Abel EL, Hannigan JH (1995) Maternal risk factors in fetal alcohol syndrome: provocative and permissive influences. Neurotoxicol Teratol 17:445–462
Wozniak JR, Fuglestad AJ, Eckerle JK et al (2013) Choline supplementation in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders has high feasibility and tolerability. Nutr Res 33:897–904
Oesterheld JR, Kofoed L, Tervo R et al (1998) Effectiveness of methylphenidate in Native American children with fetal alcohol syndrome and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a controlled pilot study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 8:39–48
Snyder J, Nanson J, Snyder R, Block G (1997) A study of stimulant medication in children with FAS. In: Streissguth A, Kanter J (eds) Overcoming and preventing secondary disabilities in fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects. University of Washington Press, Seattle
Coe J, Sidders J, Riley K et al (2001) A survey of medication responses in children and adolescents with fetal alcohol syndrome. Ment Heal Asp Dev Disabil 4:148–155
Doig J, McLennan JD, Gibbard W, Ben (2008) Medication effects on symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 18:365–71
O’Malley KD, Koplin B, Dohner VA (2000) Psychostimulant clinical response in fetal alcohol syndrome. Can J Psychiatry 45:90–91
Lock TM (2012) A study of the efficacy of atomoxetine in treating the inattention, impulsivity and hyperactivity in children with fetal alcohol syndrome or effects. http://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT00417794
Kodituwakku PW, Kodituwakku EL (2011) From research to practice: an integrative framework for the development of interventions for children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Neuropsychol Rev 21:204–223
Kable J, Coles CD, Taddeo E (2007) Socio-cognitive habilitation using the math interactive learning experience program for alcohol-affected children. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 31:1425–1434
Adnams CM, Sorour P, Kalberg WO et al (2007) Language and literacy outcomes from a pilot intervention study for children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in South Africa. Alcohol 41:403–414
Wells AM, Chasnoff IJ, Schmidt CA et al (2012) Neurocognitive habilitation therapy for children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: an adaptation of the Alert Program®. Am J Occup Ther 66:24–34
Loomes C, Rasmussen C, Pei J et al (2008) The effect of rehearsal training on working memory span of children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Res Dev Disabil 29:113–124
Coles CD, Strickland DC, Padgett L, Bellmoff L (2007) Games that “work”: using computer games to teach alcohol-affected children about fire and street safety. Res Dev Disabil 28:518–530
O’Connor MJ, Frankel F, Paley B et al (2006) A controlled social skills training for children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. J Consult Clin Psychol 74:639–648
Bertrand J (2009) Interventions for children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs): overview of findings for five innovative research projects. Res Dev Disabil 30:986–1006
Schonfeld AM, Paley B, Frankel F, O’Connor MJ (2009) Behavioral regulation as a predictor of response to children’s friendship training in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Clin Neuropsychol 23:428–445
Lemoine P, Harousseau H, Borteyru JP, Menuet JC (1968) Les enfants des parents alcooliques: anomalies observees apropos de 127 cas. Ouest Med 21:476–482
Conflict of interest
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Dörrie, N., Föcker, M., Freunscht, I. et al. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 23, 863–875 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-014-0571-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-014-0571-6