Abstract
Kerala is the third most densely populated state in India. It is a narrow strip of land, of which 47% is occupied by the most prominent orographic feature of peninsular India, The Western Ghats mountain chain. The highlands of Kerala experience several types of landslides, of which debris flows are the most common. They are called “Urul Pottal” in the local vernacular. The west-facing Western Ghats scarps that runs the entire extent of the mountain system is the most prone physiographic unit for landslides. The highlands of the region experience an annual average rainfall as high as 500 cm through the South-West, North-East and Pre-Monsoon showers. A survey of ancient documents and early news papers indicates a reduced rate of slope instability in the past. The processes leading to landslides were accelerated by anthropogenic disturbances such as deforestation since the early 18th century, terracing and obstruction of ephemeral streams and cultivation of crops lacking capability to add root cohesion in steep slopes. The events have become more destructive given the increasing vulnerability of population and property. Majority of mass movements have occurred in hill slopes >20° along the Western Ghats scarps, the only exception being the coastal cliffs. Studies conducted in the state indicates that prolonged and intense rainfall or more particularly a combination of the two and the resultant pore pressure variations are the most important trigger of landslides. The initiation zone of most of the landslides was typical hollows generally having degraded natural vegetation. A survey of post-landslide investigation and news paper reports enabled the identification of 29 major landslide events in the state. All except one of the 14 districts in the state are prone to landslides. Wayanad and Kozhikode districts are prone to deep seated landslides, while Idukki and Kottayam are prone to shallow landslides.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aiya VN (1906) The Travancore State Manual I, II & III (1906, 1st edn, and 1999, new edn). Kerala Council for Historical Research, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Alcantara-Ayala I (2002) Geomorphology, natural hazards, vulnerability and prevention of natural disasters in developing countries. Geomorphology 47(2–4):107–124
Aravind N (reporter) (2003) Light, shade and rain, The Hindu news paper, 6 July 2003, Thiruvananthapuram, India, Online edition. http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mag/2003/07/06/stories/2003070600230400.htm. Accessed 7 Jan 2007
Babu DSS, Nair AG, Jayaprasad BK (2007) Evolution of Kerala coast during Cenozoic and evidences of Holocene tectonism, extended abstracts of the international workshop on fluvial and marine processes of Cenozoic and Placer formation, 1–10 November 2007. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram, and National Institute of Oceanography, Goa, India
Babu DSS, Nandakumar V, John B, Jayaprasad BK, Pramod SV (2000) Siltation analysis in the Neyyar reservoir and forest degradation in its catchment: a study from Kerala state, India. Environ Geol 39(3):390–397
Balakrishnan TS (2001) Tectonics of Western India inferred from gravity patterns and geophysical exploration. In: Gunnell Y, Radhakrishna BP (eds) Sahyadri—the great escarpment of the Indian subcontinent (patterns of landscape development in the Western Ghats). Geological Society of India, Bangalore, India, pp 271–277
Basak P, Prasad NBN (1985) Landslides in the Western Ghats. In: Proceedings of the workshop on landslides in Western Ghats, 30–31 July 1985, Kozhikode, India. Kerala State Committee on Science, Technology and Environment
Basak P, Prasad NBN (1989) Recurring landslides in the Western Ghats—an environmental hazard. Environ Conserv 16(2):169–172
Buchanan-Hamilton F (1807) A journey from Madras through the countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar for the express purpose of investigating the state of agriculture, arts and commerce; the religion, manners and customs; the history natural and civil and antiquites I, II & III (reprinted in 1988). Asian Educational Services India Ltd, New Delhi, India
Census of India (2001) Population distribution, percentage decadel growth rate, sex ratio and population density of Kerala, 2001. Government of India. http://kerala.gov.in/statistical/vitalstatistics/1.02.pdf. Accessed 16 Mar 2007
Chandrakaran S, Paul KV, Nambiar MRM (1995) Geotechnical characteristics of landslide prone areas of Idukki and Kottayam districts of Kerala. In: Abstracts of the national seminar on landslides in Western Ghats, 29–30 Aug 1995. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Chattopadhyay S (1985) Deforestation in parts of Western Ghats region (Kerala), India. Int J Environ Manag 20:219–230
Chattopadhyay S (2004) Landforms of Kerala: an overview. In: Kumar GRR, Subhash N (eds) Earth system science and natural resources management, silver jubilee compendium. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India, pp 211–288
Chattopadhyay S, Mahamaya C (1995) Terrain analysis of Kerala, technical monograph 1/95. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
Chinnamani S, Venkataraman C, Tejwani KG (1980) Landslides and landslips in Peninsular India. Bull Central Soil Water Conserv Res Train Inst 4
Devoli G, Morales A, Hoeg K (2007) Historical landslides in Nicaragua—collection and analysis of data. Landslides 4(1):5–18
Earnest A, Khan A, Nair GD (1995) Role of groundwater in landslide initiation on Western Ghats, new case histories from Palakkad district, Kerala. In: Abstracts of the national seminar on landslides in Western Ghats, 29–30 Aug 1995. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Ellen SD (1988) Description and mechanics of soil slip/debris flows in the storm. In: Ellen SD, Wieczorek GF (eds) Proceedings of the conference on landslides, floods and marine effects of the storm of January 3–5, 1982, in the San Francisco Bay Region, California, Washington, USA, USGS professional paper 1434
EM-DAT (2008) Emergency disasters data base. Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, Université Catholique de Louvain—Ecole de Santé Publique. http://www.em-dat.net/disasters/Visualisation/emdat_display_list.php. Accessed 12 Jan 2008
ENS and Agencies (reporter) (1999) Over 25 pilgrims killed in landslide at Pamba, The Indian Express news paper, 15 Jan 1999. Thiruvananthapuram, India, Online edition. http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/19990115/01550755.html. Accessed 5 July 2001
FSI (2003) State of the forests report—Kerala, Forest Survey of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Dehradun, India. http://www.fsi.nic.in/sfr2003/kerala.pdf. Accessed 14 Mar 2006
George PS, Chattopadhyay S (2001) Population and land use in Kerala. In: Wolman MG (ed) Growing populations changing landscapes: studies from India, China, and the United States. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, pp 79–106
Gopinath CI (1985) Debris Flows in the Western Ghats [Urulpottal Paschimaghattathil (in Malayalam)]. In: Workshop on landslides in Western Ghats, 30–31 July 1985. Kerala State Committee on Science, Technology and Environment, Kozhikode, India
Government of India (1956) Forests and soil conservation, second 5 year plan. Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development and National Informatics Centre, New Delhi, India. http://www.education.nic.in/cd50years/15/8P/8A/8P8A0G01.htm. Accessed 8 May 2007
Greenway DR (1987) Chapter 6: vegetation and slope stability. In: Anderson MG, Richards KS (eds) Slope stability. Wiley, West Sussex
Gupta HS (2001) Terrain evaluation for eco-restoration using remote sensing and GIS. In: Proceedings of the 4th AGILE conference on GIScience, 19–21 April 2001, Brno, Czech Republic. Association of Geographic Information Laboratories, Europe (AGILE). http://plone.itc.nl/agile_old/Conference/brno2001/proceedings/50.pdf. Accessed 14 April 2006
Guzzetti F, Reichenbach P, Cardinal M, Ardizzone F, Galli M (2003) The impact of landslides in the Umbria region, central Italy. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 3(5):469–486
Harikrishnan K, Manoj B, Dinakar VS, Nair NH, Sankar G, Mathai J, Thampi PK (1995) Proper landuse practice—an effective mitigation measure for landslide. In: Abstracts of the national seminar on landslides in Western Ghats, 29–30 Aug 1995. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Harikumar B (2004) A passage to the past: an engineering sage in which each and every event has a magical charm. Kerala calling. http://kerala.gov.in/keralcalnov04/p24-25.pdf
Harikumar R, Kumar VS, Sampath S, Vinayak PVSSK (2007) Comparison of drop size distribution between stations in Eastern and Western coasts of India. J Indian Geophys Union 11(2):111–116
IMD (2007) South-west monsoon 2007: end of season report, Indian Meteorological Department, Government of India. http://www.imd.gov.in/section/nhac/dynamic/endmonsoonreport2007.htm. Accessed 1 Jan 2008
Indo-Asian News Service (reporter) (2007) Rains subside but Kerala continues to suffer, Latest News India, 19 July 2007. Kochi, India, Online edition. http://www.freshnews.in/rains-subside-but-kerala-continues-to-suffer-13494. Accessed 10 Aug 2007
Ittekkot V, Subramanian V (2001) Nature of organic carbon in rivers of Kerala. ENVIS Newsletter 7(3): special abstract volume of the international workshop on ecohydrology (Theme: Western Ghats in Kerala). http://envisjnu.tripod.com/newslet/newslet-framev7n3.html. Accessed 14 Dec 2007
Jha CS, Dutt CBS, Bawa KS (2000) Deforestation and landuse changes in Western Ghats, India. Curr Sci 79(2):231–237
KSFWD (2004) History of Kerala forestry. Kerala Forests and Wildlife Department. http://www.keralaforest.org/html/general/index.htm. Accessed 12 Jan 2008
Kumar BM (2005a) Land use in Kerala: changing scenarios and shifting paradigms. J Trop Agric 42(1/2):1–12
Kumar BM (2007) Flood situation report—2007 (No. 137/2007, 1700 hours, LAST SITREP). Disaster Management Division, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. http://www.ndmindia.nic.in/flood-2007/floods2007.htm. Accessed 12 Jan 2008
Kumar KSS (2005) Geo-informatics in landslide risk assessment and management in parts of Western Ghats, Central Kerala, South India. PhD Thesis, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
Kumar VS, Sampath S, Vinayak PVSSK, Harikumar R (2007) Rainfall intensity characteristics at coastal and high altitude stations in Kerala. J Earth Syst Sci 116(5):451–463
Kuriakose SL (2006) Effect of vegetation on debris flow initiation: conceptualisation and parameterisation of a dynamic model for debris flow initiation in Tikovil River Basin, Kerala, India, using PCRaster. MSc Thesis, International Institute for Geo-information Science and Earth Observation, Enschede, The Netherlands, and Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun, India, p 133. http://www.itc.nl/library/Academic_output/AcademicOutput.aspx?p=1&y=6&l=20
Kuriakose SL, van Westen CJ, Lakhera RC, van Beek LPH, Sankar G, Alkema D, van Asch TWJ, Jayadev SK (2006) Effect of vegetation on debris flow initiation—conceptualisation and parameterisation of a dynamic model for debris flow initiation in Tikovil River Basin, Kerala, India, using PCRaster. In: Proceedings of the 2nd international symposium on geo-information for disaster management (Gi4DM)—remote sensing and GIS techniques for monitoring and prediction of disasters, Goa, India, 25–26 Sept 2006. International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
Kusala R, Rajendran CP (1995) Occurrences of micro-earthquakes and landslides in Kerala: are they related? In: Abstracts of the national seminar on landslides in Western Ghats, 29–30 Aug 1995. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India.
Lal M, Meehl GA, Arblaster JM (2000) Simulation of Indian summer monsoon rainfall and its intraseasonal variability in the NCAR climate system model. Reg Environ Change 1(3):163–179
Logan W (1887) The Malabar manual I & II (reprinted in 2000). Asian Educational Services, New Delhi
Malet J-P, van Beek R, Thiery Y, Maquaire O (2005) Distributed physically-based slope stability models as forecasting tools to define hydro-climatic thresholds for rainfall-induced landslides. In: Proceedings of the European Geosciences Union General Assembly 2005, Vienna, Austria, European Geosciences Union, Geophysical Research Abstracts, vol 7. http://www.cosis.net/abstracts/EGU05/02522/EGU05-J-02522.pdf
Markham CR (1866) On the effects of the destruction of forests in the Western Ghauts of India on the water-supply. J R Geogr Soc Lond 36:180–195
Muraleedharan MP (1995) Landslides in Kerala—a drenched state phenomena in regolith. In: Abstracts of the national seminar on landslides in Western Ghats, 29–30 Aug 1995. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Muraleedharan C, John MK (2007a) Report on recent landslides in Koilandy and Kozhikode taluks, Kozhikode district, Kerala. Investigation report. Geological Survey of India, Government of India, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
Muraleedharan C, John MK (2007b) Report on the recent landslides in Eranadu and Perinthalmanna taluks, Malappuram district, Kerala. Investigation report. Geological Survey of India, Government of India, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Muraleedharan C, Kurien S (2007) Report on the Kallala 102/800 slump/creep, Vazhikkadavu, Malappuram district, Kerala. Investigation report. Geological Survey of India, Government of India, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
Muraleedharan C, Muraleedharan MP (2007a) Report on recent landslides in Thodupuzha, Udumbanchola and Devikulam taluks, Idukki district, Kerala. Geological Survey of India, Government of India, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Muraleedharan C, Muraleedharan MP (2007b) Report on recent landslides in Wayanad district, Kerala. Geological Survey of India, Government of India, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Muthu RP, Muraleedharan C (2005) Causes and Mechanism of Amboori Landslide of 9th November, 2001, Thiruvananthapuram district, Kerala. J Geol Soc India 66(2):203–208
Nair KM, Chattopadhyay S, Sasidharan CK (1997) Analysis of the environmental impact of the lowland to highland migration in the Western Ghats region, Kerala. Technical report submitted to the Ministry of Environment and Forests. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Pisharody PR (1992) Climate of Kerala [Keralathile Kalavastha (in Malayalam)]. State Institute of Languages. Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Putthacharoen S, Howeler RH, Jantawat S, Vichukit V (1998) Nutrient uptake and soil erosion losses in cassava and six other crops in a Psamment in eastern Thailand. Field Crops Res 57(1):113–126
Radhakrishnan SA (reporter) (2006) Cliff at Varkala facing threat of extinction, The Hindu news paper, Varkala, India, Online edition, 14 July 2006. http://www.hindu.com/2006/07/14/stories/2006071423050300.htm. Accessed on 16 June 2006
Raj UD, Muraleedharan C (2004) A geotechnical report on the Nittukottapara landslide of 4th August 2004, Badagara taluk, Kozhikode district, Kerala. Geological Survey of India, Government of India, Chennai, India
Raj KG, Paul MA, Hegde VS, Nilagunappa R (2001) Lineaments and seismicity of Kerala: a remote sensing based analysis. Photonirvachak J Indian Soc Remote Sens 29(4):203–211
Rajagopalan G, Pitchaimuthu R (1995) A geotechnical appraisal of slide at Elachivali village, Mannarkkadu Taluk, Palakkad district, Kerala. In: Abstracts of the national seminar on landslides in Western Ghats, 29–30 Aug 1995. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Rajagopalan SP, Prasad NBN, Nazimuddin M, Basak P (1985) Landslides in the high ranges of Western Ghats within Idukki district—a brief exposition. In: Proceedings of the workshop on landslides in Western Ghats, 30–31 July 1985, Kozhikode, India, Kerala State Committee on Science, Technology and Environment
Ramalingam E, Muraleedharan C, Chandrasekaran S (2006) A geotechnical report on the Munnar landslide of 25th July 2005, Idukki District, Kerala. Engineering Geology Division (Southern Region), Geological Survey of India, Government of India, Chennai, India
Sampath S, Vinayak PVSSK, Kumar VS (1995) Rainfall—a trigger for landslides. In: Abstracts of the national seminar on landslides in Western Ghats, 29–30 Aug 1995. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Sankar G (1991) Landslides in Koodaranji and Koorachundu, Calicut district. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Sankar G (2001) A preliminary report on the November 9th landslide at Amboori Panchayath, Thiruvananthapuram district. Site Investigation report. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Sankar G (2005a) Investigation of the land subsidence in Chattivayal locality of Cherupuzha gram panchayat, Taliparamba taluk, Kannur district. Investigation report. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Sankar G (2005b) Landslides of Kerala and their management. In: Rajamanickam GV (ed) Proceedings of the National Seminar on Landslides, Thanjavur, India, SASTRA Deemed University
Sankar G (2007a) Chapter 1: natural hazards. In: Yesodharan EP, Kokkal K, Harinarayanan P (eds) State of the environment report of Kerala 2007, vol II: natural hazards. Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Sankar G (2007b) Landslides in Kerala during the south-west monsoon, 2007. Investigation report. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Sankar G, Mathai J, Sidharthan S (2004) Landslide mitigation study in landslide prone areas of Pathanapuram taluk. CESS-PR-36-2004. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Santhi S (2004) Forests, river valley projects and displacement: a pilot study of the impact of displacement by the Peppara dam on the Kani tribal families in the Vithura panchayath of the Thiruvananthapuram district. Unedited report. Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development, Centre for Development Studies, Thiruvananthapuram, India. http://www.krpcds.org/report/santh.pdf. Accessed 20 Aug 2006
Soman K (2002) Geology of Kerala. Geological Society of India, Bangalore, India
Soman MK, Krishnakumar K, Singh N (1988) Decreasing trend in the rainfall of Kerala. Curr Sci 57(1):7–12
Sreekumar S, Krishnanath R (2000) Stability of Lateritic profiles in parts of Western Ghats, India. In: Bromhead EN, Dixon N, Ibsen M-L, Sfakianaki E (eds) Landslides in research, theory and practice: proceedings of the 8th international symposium on landslides held in Cardiff, England, June 26th–30th, 2000. Thomas Telford Ltd., London, pp 1395–1400
SSB and NBSS&LUP (1979) Soils of Kerala. Soil Survey Branch, Department of Agriculture, Government of Kerala and National Bureau of Soil Survey and Landuse Planning, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Staff Reporter (2000) Monsoon wreaks havoc in State, The Hindu news paper, 26 Aug 2000. Thiruvananthapuram, India, Online edition. http://www.hinduonnet.com/2000/08/26/stories/0426211t.htm. Accessed 17 May 2001
Staff Reporter (2001) The magic of Bhoothathankettu, The Hindu news paper, 28 Dec 2001. Kochi, Kerala, India, Online edition. http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/12/29/stories/2001122903250300.htm. Accessed 1 Sept 2003
Staff Reporter (2005a) Landslide in Trichur: two doubted missing [Trissuril Urul pottal: Randupere kananillannu samshayam (in Malayalam)], ThatsMalayalam.com, 14 July 2005. Kochi, India, Online edition. http://thatsmalayalam.oneindia.in/news/2005/07/14/kerala-landslide.html. Accessed 7 Jan 2006
Staff Reporter (2005b) Landslides strikes Idukki again [Idukkiyil veendum mannidichil (in Malayalam)], ThatsMalayalam.com, 1 Aug 2005. Idukki, India, Online edition. http://thatsmalayalam.oneindia.in/news/2005/08/01/kerala-landslide-idukki.html. Accessed 17 Jan 2006
Thakur VC (1996) Landslide hazard management and control in India. Status report. International Center for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu, Nepal
Thampi PK, Mathai J, Sankar G (1992a) Evaluation of slope failures and subsidence phenomenon around Palakkayam village, Mannarghat taluk, Palghat district Kerala. Investigation report. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Thampi PK, Mathai J, Sankar G (1992b) Land distrubances at Ottakkal area, Quilon district, Kerala. Investigation report. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Thampi PK, Mathai J, Sankar G (1993) Land disturbances at Kandalur area of Devikolam taluk, Idukki district, Kerala. Investigation report. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Thampi PK, Mathai J, Sankar G (1994) Urul pottal (landslides) in the Bison Valley, Idukki district. Investigation report. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Thampi PK, Mathai J, Sankar G (1995) A regional evaluation of landslide prone areas in the Western Ghats of Kerala. In: Abstracts of the national seminar on landslides in Western Ghats, 29–30 Aug 1995. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Thampi PK, Mathai J, Sankar G, Sidharthan S (1998) Evaluation study in terms of landslide mitigation in parts of Western Ghats, Kerala. Research report submitted to the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Thigale SS, Khandge AS (2005) Coping with landslide disasters in the Western Ghats. In: Valdiya KS (ed) Coping with natural hazards: Indian context. Orient Longman, New Delhi, pp 153–164
United News of India (reporter) (2007) Five labourers killed in quarry landslide, NewKerala.com, 22 Dec 2007. Kochi, India, Online edition. http://www.newkerala.com/one.php?action=fullnews&id=6548. Accessed 18 Jan 2008
United News of India (reporter) (2008) One killed in landslide, WebIndia123.com, 18 Jan 2008. Kochi, India, Online edition. http://news.webindia123.com/news/Articles/India/20080118/871388.html. Accessed 19 Jan 2008
van Asch TWJ, Buma J, van Beek LPH (1999) A view on some hydrological triggering systems in landslides. Geomorphology 30(1/2):25–32
Vijith H, Madhu G (2007) Estimating potential landslide sites of an upland sub-watershed in Western Ghat’s of Kerala (India) through frequency ratio and GIS. Environ Geol. doi:10.1007/s00254-007-1090-2
Wasowski J (1998) Understanding rainfall-landslide relationships in man-modified environments: a case-history from Caramanico Terme, Italy. Environ Geol 35(2–3):197–209
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kuriakose, S.L., Sankar, G. & Muraleedharan, C. History of landslide susceptibility and a chorology of landslide-prone areas in the Western Ghats of Kerala, India. Environ Geol 57, 1553–1568 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-008-1431-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-008-1431-9