Abstract
Space, especially physical or geographical space, is a very important concept in living systems theory (LST). Indeed, along with time, it is included in the very definition of a concrete living system. But while time has its own critical subsystem in LST, space receives relative neglect. There is no space subsystem, but space is discussed in the boundary and supporter subsystems. The problem here is that discussion of the boundary emphasizes the regulation of matter-energy and information flows, while discussion of the supporter emphasizes vertical support rather than lateral spacing. The purpose of this paper is to rectify the relative neglect of spacing by unifying the scattered discussion of space in LST. After discussing space in the boundary and supporter subsystems at six levels (the organism, group, organization, community, society, and supranational), the paper extends and complements the literature of LST by discussing additional relevant literature on space, and by discussing possible applications at the six levels.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bailey, K. D. (1968).Human Ecology: A General Systems Approach, Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas, Austin.
Bailey, K. D. (1981). Abstracted Versus concrete sociological theory.Behav. Sci. 26, 313–323.
Bailey, K. D. (1990).Social Entropy Theory, State University of New York Press, Albany.
Bailey, K. D. (1994).Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward A Theoretical Synthesis, State University of New York Press, Albany.
Berry, B. J. L. (1964). Cities as systems within systems of cities.Papers Proc. Region. Sci. Assoc. 13, 147–163.
Burgess, E. W. (1925). The growth of the city: An introduction to a research project. In Park, R. E., Burgess, E. W., and McKenzie, R. D. (eds.),The City, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 47–62.
Calhoun, J. B. (1962). Population density and social pathology.Sci. Am. 206, 139–164.
Christaller, W. (1963).Die Zentrale Orte in Süddeutschland, Gustaven Fisher, Verlag, Jena.
Firey, W. (1947).Land Use in Central Boston, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Forrester, J. W. (1973).World Dynamics, 2nd ed., Wright-Allen, Cambridge.
Freedman, J. (1971). The crowd: Maybe not so maddening after all.Psychol. Today 5, 58–61.
Galle, O. R., Gove, W. R., and Mcpherson, J. M. (1972). Population density and pathology: What are the relations for man?Science 176, 23–30.
Griffit, W., and Veitch, R. (1971). Hot and crowded: Influences of population density and temperature on interpersonal affective behavior.J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 17, 92–98.
Hewitt, J., and Henley, R. (1987). Sex differences in reaction to spatial invasion.Percept. Motor Skills 64, 809–810.
Kerr, J. A. C. (1978).Space Use by Medical-Surgical Hospital Ward Staff, Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.
Kinzel, A. F. (1970). Body-buffer zone in violent prisoners.Am. J. Psychiat. 127, 59–64.
Lott, D. F., and Sommer, R. (1967). Seating arrangements and status.J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 7, 90–95.
Lyman, S. M., and Scott, M. B. (1967) Territoriality: A neglected sociological dimension.Soc. Problems 15, 236–249.
Mehta, S. K. (1964). Some demographic and economic correlates of primate cities.Demography 1, 136–147.
Milgram, S., Liberty, H. J., Toledo, R., and Wackenhut, J. (1986). Response to intrusion into waiting lines.J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 51, 683–689.
Miller, J. G. (1978).Living Systems, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Miller, J. L. (1990). The timer.Behavioral Science 35, 164–196.
Miller, J. G., and Miller, J. L. (1990). Introduction: The nature of living systems.Behav. Sci. 35, 157–163.
Miller, J. G., and Miller, J. L. (1992). Greater than the sum of its parts. I. Subsystems which process both matter-energy and information.Behav. Sci. 37, 1–38.
Miller, J. G., and Miller, J. L. (1993). Greater than the sum of its parts. II. Matter-energy processing subsystems.Behav. Sci. 38, 151–188.
Park, R. E. (1936). Human ecology.Am. J. Sociol. 42, 1–15.
Parsons, T. (1979). Concrete systems and “abstracted” systems.Contemp. Sociol. 8, 696–705.
Wallerstein, I. (1974).The Modern World System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World in the Sixteenth Century, Academic Press, New York.