Abstract
Using a classical life history model (the Smith & Fretwell model of the evolution of offspring size), it is demonstrated that even in the presence of overwhelming empirical support, the testability of predictions derived from evolutionary models can give no guarantee that the underlying fitness concept is sound. Non-awareness of this problem may cause considerable justified but avoidable criticism. To help understanding the variable use of fitness in evolutionary models and recognizing potentially problematic areas which need careful consideration, a hierarchical classification of definitions of fitness used in evolutionary models is presented. As a conclusion, it is advocated to use the term fitness more conscientiously than currently often practised and to think more about ways to develop fitness-free evolutionary theories compatible with Darwin's ideas.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abugov, R. (1986). Genetics of Darwinian fitness. III. A generalized approach to age structured selection and life history.- J. theor. Biol. 122: 311–323.
Bertin, L. (1958). Sexualité et fecondation. In: P. P. Grassé, ed., Traite de Zoologie: T. XIII/I: Agnathes et Poissons, 1585–1652.- Paris, Masson.
Brandon, R.N. (1978). Adaptation and evolutionary theory.- Stud. Hist. Philos. sci. 9: 181–206.
Box, G.E.P. (1976). Science and statistics.- J. Amer. Stat. Assoc. 71: 791–799.
Brockelman, W.Y. (1975). Competition, the fitness of offspring, and optimal clutch size.- Am. Nat. 109: 677–699.
Brody, M.S. and Lawlor, L.R. (1984). Adaptive variation in offspring size in the terrestrial isopod Armadillium vulgare.- Oecologia 61: 55–59.
Capinera, J.L. (1979). Qualitative variation in plants and insects: effect of propagule size on ecological plasticity.- Am. Nat. 114: 350–361.
Caplan, A.L. (1977). Tautology, circularity, and biological theory.- Am. Nat. 111: 390–393.
Castrodeza, C. (1977). Tautologies, beliefs, and empirical knowledge in biology.- Am. Nat. 111: 393–394.
Charlesworth, B. (1980). Evolution in Age-structured Populations.- Cambridge, Univ. Press.
Charnov, E.L. (1986). Life history evolution in a “recruitment population”: why are adult mortality rates constant?- Oikos 47: 129–134.
Cooper, W.S. (1984). Expected time to extinction and the concept of fundamental fitness.- J. theor. Biol. 107: 603–629.
Crump, M.L. (1981). Variation in propagule size as a function of environmental uncertainty for tree frogs.- Am. Nat. 117: 724–737.
Darwin, C. (1859). On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection.- London, J. Murray.
Duellman, W.E. and Trueb, L. (1986). Biology of Amphibians.- New York, McGraw-Hill.
Dunbar, R.I.M. (1982). Adaptation, fitness, and the evolutionary tautology. In: King's College Sociobiology Group, eds., Current Problems in Sociobiology, 9–28.- Cambridge, University Press.
Eisenberg, J.F. (1981). The Mammalian Radiations.- London, Athlone Press.
Endler, J.A. (1986). Natural Selection in the Wild.- Princeton, Princeton Univ. Monogr. Pop. Biol. 21.
Ferguson, A. (1976). Can evolutionary theory predict?- Am. Nat. 110: 1101–1104.
Fitch, H.S. (1970). Reproductive cycles of lizards and snakes.- Univ. Kansas Mus. Nat. Hist. Misc. Publ. No. 52.
Gould, S.J. (1980). The Panda's Thumb.- New York, Penguin Books.
Gould, S.J. (1985). The Flamingo's Smile.- New York, Penguin Books.
Holling, C.S. (1973). Resilience and stability of ecological systems.- Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 4: 1–23.
Janzen, D.H. (1977). Promising direction of study in tropical plant-animal interactions.- Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 61: 706–736.
Jongeling, T.B. (1985). On an axiomatization of evolutionary theory.- J. theor. Biol. 117: 529–543.
Kaplan, R.H. (1980). The implications of ovum variability for offspring fitness and clutch size within several populations of salamanders (Ambystoma). Evolution 34: 51–64.
Kaplan, R.H. and Cooper, W.S. (1984). The evolution of developmental plasticity in reproductive characteristics: an application of the “adaptive coin flipping” principle.- Am. Nat. 123: 393–410.
Kempthorne, O. and E. Pollak (1970). Concepts of fitness in mendelian populations.- Genetics 64: 125–145.
Klomp, H. (1970). Clutch size in birds.- Ardea 58: 1–121.
Krimbas, C.B. (1984). On adaptation, Neo-Darwinian tautology, and population fitness. In: M. Hecht, B. Wallace, and G. Prance, eds., Evolutionary Biology, Vol. 17: 1–57.- New York, Plenum Press.
Lewontin, R.C. (1978). Adaptation.- Sci. Amer. 239: 156–169.
McGinley, M.A., Temme, D.H., and Geber, M.A. (1987). Parental investment in offspring in variable environments: theoretical and empirical considerations.- Am. Nat. 130: 370–398.
Murray, B.G. (1988). On measuring individual fitness: a reply to Nur.- Oikos 51: 249–250.
Nur, N. (1987). Population growth rate and the measurement of fitness: a critical reflection.- Oikos 48: 338–341.
Partridge, L. and Harvey, P.H. (1988). The ecological context of life history evolution.- Science 241: 1449–1455.
Peters, R.H. (1976). Tautology in evolution and ecology.- Am. Nat. 110: 1–12.
Pianka, E.R. (1988). Evolutionary Ecology, 4th ed.- New York, Harper & Row.
Popper, K. (1974). Darwinism as a metaphysical research programme. In: P.A. Schilpp, ed., The Philosophy of Karl Popper. Vol. 1: 133–143. Ill., La Salle.
Rosenberg, A. (1983). “Fitness”. J. Phil. 80: 457–473.
Rosenberg, A. and Williams, M.B. (1986). Fitness as primitive and propensity.- Phil. Sci. 53: 412–418.
Roughgarden, J. (1979). Theory of Population Genetics and Evolutionary Ecology: An Introduction. New York, MacMillan.
Ruse, M. (1982). Darwinism Defended.- London, Addison-Wesley.
Sitch, T.A., D.A. Grewcock, and Gilbert, F.S. (1988). Factors affecting components of fitness in a gall-making wasp (Cynips divisa Hartig). Oecologia 76: 371–375.
Shine, R. (1980). Costs of reproduction in reptiles. Oecologia 46: 92–100.
Slobodkin, L. (1964). The strategy of evolution. Am. Sci. 52: 342–347.
Slobodkin, L. and Rapoport, A. (1974). An optimal strategy of evolution.- Q. Rev. Biol. 49: 181–200.
Smith, C.C. and Fretwell, S.D. (1974). The optimal balance between size and number of offspring. Am. Nat. 108: 499–506.
Sober, E. (1984). The Nature of Selection: A Philosophical Inquiry.- Cambridge, Bradford/MIT Press.
Stamp, N.E. and Lucas, J.R. (1983). Ecological correlates of explosive seed dispersal.- Oecologia 59: 272–278.
Stearns, S.C. (1976). life-history tactics: a review of the ideas.- Q. Rev. Biol. 51: 1–47.
Stearns, S.C. (1982). On fitness. In: D. Mossakowski and G. Roth, eds., Environmental Adaptation and Evolution, 3–17. Stuttgart, G. Fischer.
Stearns, S.C. (1986). Natural selection and fitness, adaptation and constraint. In: D.M. Raup and D. Jablonski, eds., Patterns and Processes in the History of Life, 23–44.- Berlin, Springer.
Stearns, S.C. and Schmid-Hempel, P. (1987). Evolutionary insights should not be wasted.- Oikos 49: 118–125.
Stebbins, G.L. (1977). In defense of evolution: tautology or theory?- Am. Nat. 111: 386–390.
Thompson, J.N. (1984). Variation among individual seed masses in Lomatium grayi (Umbelliferae) under controlled conditions: magnitude and partitioning of the variance.- Ecology 65: 626–631.
Tuljapurkar, S.D. and Orzack, S.H. (1980). Population dynamics invariable environments. I. Long-run growth rates and extinction.- Theor. Pop. Biol. 18: 314–342.
Tuomi, J. and Haukioja, E. (1979). An analysis of natural selection in models of life-history.- Savonia 3: 9–16.
Vitt, L.J. and Price, H.J. (1982). Ecological and evolutionary determinants of relative clutch mass in lizards.- Herpetologica 38: 237–255.
Wallace, B. (1981). Basic Population Genetics.- New York, Columbia University Press.
Wilbur, H.M. (1977). Propagule size, number, and dispersion pattern in Ambystoma and Asclepias. Am. Nat. 111: 43–68.
Williams, M.B. (1970). Deducing the consequences of evolution. A mathematical model.- J. theor. Biol. 29: 343–385.
Witten, M. (1978). Fitness and survival in logistic models.- J. theor. Biol. 74: 23–32.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Henle, K. Some reflections on evolutionary theories, With a classification of fitness. Acta Biotheor 39, 91–106 (1991). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00046594
Received:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00046594