Abstract
This chapter reports a scoping review of research on vocabulary learning in the wild published between January 2010 and November 2021. The aims of the review were to examine the extent of research activity and identify gaps in the existing vocabulary learning in the wild literature. Seventy-three title keywords refined by three Web of Science categories in the SSCI and ESCI databases were searched. The search yielded 257 journal articles, of which 51 met a set of inclusion criteria and were coded. First, the numerical information was used to provide an overall summary of the extent, nature, and distribution of the articles. Then, the literature was organized thematically to synthesize and summarize the articles’ aims and results. The reviewed studies investigated (incidental) vocabulary learning through engagement or the completion of activities; learner factor effects; language input factor effects; effects on variables other than vocabulary knowledge; technology and vocabulary learning; and bridging incidental and intentional vocabulary learning. However, the reviewed studies underrepresented languages other than English and learners at the pre-primary and primary levels of education. There was a paucity of studies that assessed the productive form, productive use, and receptive use aspects of vocabulary knowledge.
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Notes
- 1.
The terms learning and acquisition are used interchangeably to refer to the same construct.
- 2.
- 3.
Interested readers are encouraged to read the cited texts for in-depth discussion of these subfields of informal language learning.
- 4.
It should be noted that the study aims and important results were not reinterpreted by the coders or the author. Instead, the study aims and important result(s) as reported by the primary study authors were extracted verbatim for synthesizing.
- 5.
These were studies with a main focus on technology for vocabulary learning; the use of technology was more than just a medium for the delivery of language input.
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Acknowledgements
The research reported in this chapter was supported by the Education Fund of the Macau SAR (HSS-UMAC-2021-02). I would also like to thank the reviewers for providing extensive comments and feedback on earlier versions of the chapter.
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Appendix: Systematic Map of Reviewed Studies
Appendix: Systematic Map of Reviewed Studies
No | Author(s) | Year | Location | Educational level | L1 | L2 | Activity type | Duration | Methodology | Theoretical framework(s) | Vocabulary outcome measures |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Jonathan deHaan W. Michael Reed Katsuko Kuwada | 2010 | Japan | Tertiary | Japanese | English | Digital gameplay | 20 min | Quantitative | None | RD PF + RU Form productive vocabulary knowledge test and use receptive vocabulary knowledge test |
2 | Hui-Chi Yang Yu-Chih Sun | 2011 | Taiwan | Tertiary | Mandarin | English | Watching open courseware lectures | 20 to 26 min | Quantitative | None | RD PM Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) (Paribakht & Wesche, 1993) |
3 | Emine Türk Gülcan Erçetin | 2012 | Turkey | Secondary | Turkish | English | Reading a text(s) | 68 min | Quantitative | The Generative Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer, 2001) | 1. RD RF Form receptive vocabulary knowledge test 2. RD PM Meaning productive vocabulary knowledge test 3. RD RM Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test 4. RD RM Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test |
4 | François Pichette Linda de Serres Marc Lafontaine | 2012 | Canada | Tertiary | French | English | Reading and writing sentences | Participant determined | Quantitative | Levels of Processing Theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972) | RD PF Form productive vocabulary knowledge test |
5 | Aline Godfroid Frank Boers Alex Housen | 2013 | Belgium | Tertiary | Dutch | English | Reading a text(s) | N.A. | Quantitative | Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt, 1994) | RD RU Use receptive vocabulary knowledge test |
6 | Barry Lee Reynolds Yi Ling Bai | 2013 | Taiwan | Tertiary | Mandarin | English | Self-choice reading | Participant determined | Quantitative | None | RD RM Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test |
7 | Hilde van Zeeland Norbert Schmitt | 2013 | UK | Tertiary | Mixed | English | Listening to passages | 50 min | Quantitative | None | 1. RD RF Form receptive vocabulary knowledge test 2. RD RU Use receptive vocabulary knowledge test 3. RD PM Meaning productive vocabulary knowledge test |
8 | Takeshi Sato Mitsuyasu Matsunuma Akio Suzuki | 2013 | Japan | Tertiary | Japanese | English | Using mobile learning app(s) | 30 min | Quantitative | Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 1994) | 1. RD PM Meaning productive vocabulary knowledge test |
9 | Barry Lee Reynolds | 2014 | US & Taiwan | Tertiary | Mandarin | English | Reading a novel(s) | 2 weeks | Mixed-method | None | 1. RD RM Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test 2. RD PM Meaning productive vocabulary knowledge test 3. SM RM Vocabulary Size Test (VST) (Nation & Beglar, 2007) |
10 | Marie-Josée Bisson Walter J. B. van Heuven Kathy Conklin Richard J. Tunney | 2014 | UK | Tertiary | English | Welsh | Using word cards | N.A. | Quantitative | None | RD RM Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test |
11 | Si-min Hu Viphavee Vongpumivitch Jason S. Chang | 2014 | Taiwan | Secondary | Mandarin | English | Reading a text(s) | 2 weeks | Quantitative | None | RD PF + RU Form productive vocabulary knowledge test and use receptive vocabulary knowledge test |
12 | Barry Lee Reynolds | 2015 | Taiwan | Tertiary | Mandarin | English | Reading a novel(s) | 2 weeks | Quantitative | Declarative/Procedural Model (Ullman, 2005) | 1. RD PM Meaning productive vocabulary knowledge test 2. RD RM Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test |
13 | Denisa Bordag Amit Kirschenbaum Erwin Tschirner Andreas Opitz | 2015 | Germany | Tertiary | Mixed | German | Self-paced reading | 40 min | Quantitative | Complementary Learning Systems (CLS) Theories of Memory (McClelland et al., 1995) | SM PM + PU Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) (Paribakht & Wesche, 1993) |
14 | Jing Wu | 2015 | Mainland China | Tertiary | Mandarin | English | Engagement in informal digital learning of English | 5 weeks | Quantitative | Psycholinguistic Theories of Human Lexical Organization and Memory (Beckwith et al., 1991) | RD PF + RF + RM + RU + PU Form meaning use receptive vocabulary knowledge test(s) and form use productive vocabulary knowledge test(s) |
15 | Pia Sundqvist Peter Wikström | 2015 | Sweden | Secondary | Swedish | English | Digital gameplay | 1 year | Quantitative | None | 1. SM PF + PU Productive Vocabulary Levels Test (PVLT) (Laufer & Nation, 1999) 2. SM RM Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT) (Nation, 2022) |
16 | Ana Pellicer-Sánchez | 2016 | UK | Mixed | Mixed | English | Engagement in informal digital learning of English | 45 min | Quantitative | None | 1. RD RF Form receptive vocabulary knowledge test 2. RD PM Meaning productive vocabulary knowledge test 3. RD RM Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test |
17 | Lung-Hsiang Wong Ronnel B. King Ching Sing Chai May Liu | 2016 | Singapore | Primary | English | Mandarin | Using mobile learning app(s) | 13 months | Qualitative | None | RD PU Use productive vocabulary knowledge test |
18 | Fidel Çakmak Gülcan Erçetin | 2017 | Turkey | Tertiary | Turkish | English | Listening to stories | 80 min | Quantitative | The Generative Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer, 2001) | 1. RD RF Form receptive vocabulary knowledge test 2. RD PM Meaning productive vocabulary knowledge test |
19 | Mehmet Fatih Urun Hasan Aksoy Rasim Comez | 2017 | Turkey | Tertiary | Turkish** | English | Digital gameplay | 1 year | Mixed-method | None | 1. RD RM + RU Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test and use receptive vocabulary knowledge test |
20 | Sarvenaz Hatami | 2017 | Iran | Tertiary | Farsi | English | Reading or listening to a novel(s) | 75 min | Quantitative | None | 1. SM RM Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT) (Schmitt et al., 2001) 2. RD RF Form receptive vocabulary knowledge test 3. RD RF Form receptive vocabulary knowledge test 4. RD PM Meaning productive vocabulary knowledge test 5. RD RU Use receptive vocabulary knowledge test 6. RD RU Use receptive vocabulary knowledge test 7. RD RM Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test*** |
21 | Sunjung Lee Diana Pulido | 2017 | South Korea | Secondary | Korean | English | Reading a text(s) | 8 weeks | Quantitative | 1. Involvement Load Hypothesis (Laufer & Hulstijn, 2001) 2. Levels of Processing Theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972) | 1. RD RF Form receptive vocabulary knowledge test 2. RD RM Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test 3. RD RU Use receptive vocabulary knowledge test |
22 | Ahmed Masrai James Milton | 2018 | Saudi Arabia | Tertiary | Arabic | English | Watching movies and news programs with subtitles | Between 24 and 54 h 20 min | Qualitative | None | 1. SM RF Aural Lex (A-Lex) (Milton & Hopkins, 2005) 2. SM RF XK-Lex (Al-Masrai & Milton, 2012) |
23 | Ayman A. Mohamed | 2018 | US** | Tertiary | Mixed | English | Reading a novel(s) | 45 to 70 min | Quantitative | None | 1. RD RF Form receptive vocabulary knowledge test 2. RD PM Meaning productive vocabulary knowledge test 3. RD RM Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test 4. SM RM EFL Vocabulary Test (Meara, 1992) |
24 | Elke Peters Stuart Webb | 2018 | Belgium | Tertiary | Dutch | English | Watching TV programs | 105 min | Quantitative | None | RD RF + PM Form receptive vocabulary knowledge test and meaning productive vocabulary knowledge test |
25 | Feng Teng | 2018 | Hong Kong | Primary | Mixed | English | Watching video clips | 60 min | Quantitative | Dual-coding Theory (Paivio, 1971) | 1. SM RM Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT) (Schmitt et al., 2001) 2. RD RF + PM Form receptive vocabulary knowledge test and meaning productive vocabulary knowledge test 3. RD RM Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test |
26 | Sara Albaladejo Albaladejo Yvette Coyle Julio Roca de Larios | 2018 | Spain | Pre-primary | Spanish | English | Listening to songs and stories | 6 weeks | Quantitative | 1. Dual-coding Theory (Paivio, 1971) 2. Additivity Hypothesis (Paivio, 1975) | RD RM Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test |
27 | Sarvenaz Hatami | 2018 | Iran | Tertiary | Farsi | English | Reading a novel(s) | 3 weeks | Quantitative | None | 1. RD RF Form receptive vocabulary knowledge test 2. RD RF Form receptive vocabulary knowledge test 3. RD PM Meaning productive vocabulary knowledge test 4. RD RU Use receptive vocabulary knowledge test 5. RD RU Use receptive vocabulary knowledge test 6. RD RM Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test |
28 | Ahmet Çekiç Arif Bakla | 2019 | Turkey** | Mixed | Turkish | English | Reading a text(s) | 3 to 9 weeks | Quantitative | None | 1. SM PM + PU Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) (Paribakht & Wesche, 1993) 2. RD RM + RU Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test and Use receptive vocabulary knowledge test |
29 | Akbar Bahari | 2019 | Iran | Mixed | Farsi | English | Using mobile learning app(s) | 12 weeks | Mixed-method | None | RD PM + PU Meaning productive vocabulary knowledge test and use productive vocabulary knowledge test |
30 | Elke Peters | 2019 | Belgium | Secondary | Dutch | English | Watching TV programs | 100 min | Quantitative | 1. Dual-processing Theory of Working Memory (Baddeley, 2007) 2. The Generative Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer, 2001) | 1. RD RF + PM Form receptive vocabulary knowledge test(s) and meaning productive vocabulary knowledge test(s) 2. SM RM Vocabulary Size Test (VST) (Nation & Beglar, 2007) |
31 | Eva Puimège Elke Peters | 2019 | Belgium | Tertiary | Dutch | English | Watching TV programs | 30 min | Quantitative | None | 1. RD RF + RU Form and use receptive vocabulary knowledge test 2. RD PF Form productive vocabulary knowledge test 3. RD PM Meaning productive vocabulary knowledge test 4. SM RM Vocabulary Size Test (Nation & Beglar, 2007) |
32 | Geòrgia Pujadas Carmen Muñoz | 2019 | Spain | Secondary | Catalan and Spanish (Bilingual) | English | Watching TV programs | 1 year | Quantitative | None | 1. SM RF XK-Lex (Al-Masrai & Milton, 2012) 2. RD PF Form productive vocabulary knowledge test 3. RD PM Meaning productive vocabulary knowledge test |
33 | Guilnard Moufarrej Charbel Salameh | 2019 | US | Tertiary | English | Arabic | Listening to songs | 300 min | Quantitative | None | RD RM Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test |
34 | Jennifer Legault Jiayan Zhao Ying-An Chi Weitao Chen Alexander Klippel Ping Li | 2019 | US | Tertiary | English | Mandarin | Immersion in virtual reality | 20 min | Quantitative | Embodied Cognition (Barsalou, 2008) | RD RM Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test |
35 | Johanna F. de Vos Herbert Schriefers Kristin Lemhöfer | 2019 | Netherlands | Mixed | German | Dutch | Using word cards | 60 to 75 min | Quantitative | Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger, 1957) | 1. RD PF Form productive vocabulary knowledge test 2. SM RF Dutch LexTALE (Lemhöfer & Broersma, 2012) |
36 | Ju Seong Lee | 2019 | South Korea | Tertiary | Korean | English | Engagement in informal digital learning of English | 30 min | Mixed-method | None | 1. SM PF + PU Productive Vocabulary Levels Test (PVLT) (Laufer & Nation, 1999) 2. SM RM Receptive Vocabulary Levels Test (RVLT) (Nation, 1990) |
37 | Mostafa Janebi Enayat Mohsen Haghighatpasand | 2019 | Iran | Tertiary | Persian | English | Digital gameplay | 600 min | Mixed-method | None | 1. RD RU Use receptive vocabulary knowledge test 2. RD PF + PU From productive vocabulary knowledge test and use productive test |
38 | Pia Sundqvist | 2019 | Sweden | Secondary | Swedish* | English | Digital gameplay | Participant determined | Mixed-method | None | 1. SM PF Productive Levels Test (PLT) (Laufer & Nation, 1999) 2. SM RM Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT) (Nation, 2022) |
39 | Ting Zhao Juan Ren | 2019 | Mainland China | Tertiary | Mandarin | English | Reading a text(s) | 5 weeks | Quantitative | Levels of Processing Theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972) | 1. RD PM Meaning productive vocabulary knowledge test 2. RD RM Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test |
40 | Yangting (Tina) Wang | 2019 | Mainland China | Tertiary | Mandarin | English | Watching TV programs | 12 to 20 min | Quantitative | Dual-coding Theory (Paivio, 1971) | RD PM Meaning productive vocabulary knowledge test |
41 | Barry Lee Reynolds | 2020 | Taiwan | Tertiary | Mandarin | English | Reading stories | 4 weeks | Quantitative | None | 1. SM RM Vocabulary Size Test (VST) (Nation & Beglar, 2007) 2. RD RF + RM Form receptive vocabulary knowledge test and meaning receptive test |
42 | Jinghui Ouyang Lingshan Huang Jingyang Jiang | 2020 | Mainland China | Tertiary | Mandarin | English | Reading a text(s) | N.A. | Quantitative | Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt, 1994) | 1. RD PM Meaning productive vocabulary knowledge test 2. RD RM Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test |
43 | José Ramón Calvo-Ferrer | 2020 | Spain | Tertiary | Spainsh | English | Digital game play | 5 days | Quantitative | None | RD PM Meaning productive vocabulary knowledge test |
44 | Judith Borràs Àngels Llanes | 2020 | Ireland | Mixed | Spanish | English | Studying abroad | 3 weeks | Quantitative | None | 1. SM RM the Updated Vocabulary Levels Test (Updated VLT) (Webb et al., 2017) 2. RD PF + PM + PU Form meaning use productive vocabulary knowledge test |
45 | Marja-Leena Niitemaa | 2020 | Finland | Secondary | Finnish | English | Extramural Language Engagement | Participant determined | Mixed-method | None | SM RM Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT) (Schmitt et al., 2001) |
46 | Mohammed Alfadil | 2020 | Saudi Arabia | Secondary | Arabic | English | Digital gameplay | 35 to 45 min (12 days) | Quantitative | None | RD PM Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) (Paribakht & Wesche, 1993) |
47 | Sarah Sok ZhaoHong Han | 2020 | US | Mixed | Mixed | English | Reading a novel(s) | 3 days | Quantitative | 1. Levels of Processing Theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972) 2. Monitor Theory for L2 Acquisition (Krashen, 1987) 3. Skill Acquisition Theory (Anderson, 1982) | SM PM + PU Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) (Paribakht & Wesche, 1993) |
48 | Anne Barwasser Karolina Urton Turid Knaak Matthias Grünke | 2021 | Germany | Primary | Mixed | German | Telling stories | 480 min | Quantitative | Dual-coding Theory (Paivio, 1971) | 1. SM RM the Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFT) (Weiß, 2006) 2. SM RM The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT- IV) (Dunn & Dunn, 2007) 3. SM PF Expressive Vocabulary Test (EVT) (Williams, 2007) |
49 | Florence Baills Yuan Zhang Yuhui Cheng Yuran Bu Pilar Prieto | 2021 | Mainland China | Mixed | Mandarin | French | Listening to songs | 4 min | Quantitative | None | 1. RD PF Form productive vocabulary knowledge test 2. RD RM Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test |
50 | Josiah Murphy Ryan T. Miller Phillip Hamrick | 2021 | US | Tertiary | English | Spanish | Reading a text(s) | 3 days | Quantitative | None | 1. SM RM Spanish Vocabulary Levels Test (SVLT) (Chandler, 2017) 2. RD RF Form receptive vocabulary knowledge test 3. RD RM Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test |
51 | Kevin M. Wong Rachel M. Flynn Susan B. Neuman | 2021 | US | Pre-primary | Mixed | English | Watching educational programs | 35 to 40 min | Quantitative | Dual-coding Theory (Paivio, 1971) | 1. SM RM The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT- IV) (Dunn & Dunn, 2007) 2. RD RM Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test 3. RD RM Meaning receptive vocabulary knowledge test*** |
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Reynolds, B.L. (2023). Introduction: A Scoping Review of Second Language Vocabulary Learning in the Wild. In: Reynolds, B.L. (eds) Vocabulary Learning in the Wild. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1490-6_1
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