Keywords

5.1 Introduction

Indonesian peat swamp ecosystems, which include forests, bush, swamps, ponds, and rivers located in and around peatlands are mainly scattered across lowland areas in Indonesia, covering a total of 206,000 km,2 with 35% located in Sumatra, 32% in Kalimantan, and 33% in Papua (Muchlisin et al. 2015; Miettinen et al. 2016). Until a few decades ago, central and local governments in Indonesia regarded peat swamp forests as economically useless land and tried to develop them for capitalistic gains (Humphreys 2013; FAO 2016). For example, the central government encouraged transmigration from Java and other densely populated areas to peat swamp forests (Whitten 1987; Fearnside 1997). The government initiated an unsuccessful mega rice project in the peat areas of Central Kalimantan relocating transmigrants there (Boehm and Siegert 2000; Giesen 2008). The government divided peat areas for concessions and granted logging permissions to the companies without proper monitoring (Yolamalinda 2013; Enrici and Hubacek 2018), and overlooked extensive illegal logging (Lambin et al. 2018). These legal and illegal activities led to the construction of numerous drainage channels for agricultural development and the extraction of logs in peatlands (Hergoualc’h et al. 2018). However, more recently this condition has been changing because of the increase of knowledge about the ecosystem functions of tropical peatlands (Hergoualc’h et al. 2018).

The ecosystems of Southeast Asian rivers are known as one of the largest biodiversity hotspots in the world (Dudgeon 2011). The species diversity and vast fish supplies are important food resources to the people in Southeast Asian countries (FAO 2018). Temporal and permanent inland water bodies such as rivers, oxbow lakes, and swamps in peatlands provide critical spawning, rearing, and foraging habitat for river fishes in tropical regions, and support a high secondary production of diverse fish species (Amoros and Bornette 2002; Correa and Winemiller 2014; Hergoualc’h et al. 2018). In lowland areas of Indonesia, such water bodies mostly consist of peat swamp ecosystems and have functioned as valuable fishing grounds to sustain local fishery catches (Haryono 2007; Posa et al. 2011). The recent development of peatlands presents a serious threat to river health, basin ecosystems, and the sustainability of inland fisheries (e.g., Yustina 2016).

Engaging local stakeholders is key to ecosystem conservation and natural resource management (Sterling et al. 2017). Most inland fishery catches in Southeast Asia are provided by local residents from small-scale fisheries (Salayo et al. 2008; Cooke et al. 2016). As local fishers not only sell their catches to obtain income, but often self-consume their catches, the anthropogenic degradation of freshwater ecosystems not only leads to decreases in their income, but also in daily food consumption. Therefore, local residents engaging in small-scale inland fisheries should be the key stakeholders in decision making around the development and conservation of peat swamp ecosystems. However, at present, the central and local governments undervalue and overlook the potential of inland fisheries and do not prioritize the empowerment of inland small-scale fishers (Cooke et al. 2016). In Indonesia, information about inland small-scale fishery activities by local fishers is extremely limited except for a few qualitative reports (Allison and Ellis 2001; Masuda 2012; Stacey et al. 2019; Stacey et al. 2021). There is almost no comprehensive analysis of the fishing gear and techniques employed in the Kampar River area of Sumatra. The first steps toward achieving viable peat swamp ecosystem management to secure the sustainability of local fisheries are (1) assessing the actual and concrete situation of small-scale fisheries and (2) identifying strategies to motivate local fishers to protect the peat swamp ecosystem. Therefore, this study examines the livelihoods of people who depend on the fisheries of submerged forests around peat swamps. Awareness of the community’s dependence on these natural resources provides a basis to promote the preservation of them among community, private, and government actors.

In this chapter, we introduce the local fisheries and their commodification by fishers in Rantau Baru, a typical fishing village in the mid-Kampar Basin. We specifically focus on the utilization of peat swamp ecosystems. We illustrate how the new industry of recreational fishing in the village and has the potential to improve both the incomes of local households and peatland ecosystem conservation.

5.2 Research Site and Methodology

Rantau Baru is located in the administrative area of Pangkalan Kerinci Sub-district in Pelalawan District, Riau Province, Indonesia. The village, which covers an area of approximately 10 km2, is in a lowland area, and includes swamps, peatlands, typical peat swamp forests, the Kampar River and its tributary Bokol-Bokol, and several oxbow lakes (Kiyap, Awareness, Seluk Kuras, Badagu, and Sepunjung). Oxbow lakes and rivers are important fishing grounds for the peoples working as a fishers in Rantau Baru.

The original data used in this chapter were obtained mainly through field research in Rantau Baru that was conducted during 55 short-term trips to the villages from January 2020 to October 2021. These trips included observations of fishing and fish processing activities and unstructured interviews with villagers. We also conducted a questionnaire survey of 51 households.

Based on the survey results, at least 109 of the total 623 residents in Rantau Baru (17.5%) fish as a permanent job (Table 5.1). In addition, many people in the village have side jobs as fishers. Civil servants, government contract employees, and entrepreneurs also catch fish. Women, housewives, and widows are also engaged in fishery activity, making salted, dried, and smoked fish to augment income.

Table 5.1 Total population of Rantau Baru by occupation in 2020
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Fishing grounds in Rantau Baru are centered on the mainstream of the Kampar River. The Kampar is the main transportation route used to access other fishing grounds as well as being an important fishery ground itself. Global Positioning System (GPS) loggers were used to track fishers’ trajectories, and showed that most fishing activity was conducted in the mainstream of the Kampar River, followed by activity in swamps, tributaries, secondary flows, and artificial canals in plantation areas (Fig. 5.1).

Fig. 5.1
Two passive tracking of the G P S of fishing grounds in Rantau Baru is almost the same for both fishermen and fisherwomen.

GPS tracking handle for observation of the fishing grounds of (a) fishermen and (b) fisherwomen in Rantau Baru

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As Chap. 6 explains, the adat (communal law) committee of Rantau Baru village has a regulation to annually auction certain fishing areas of tributaries, lakes, and swamps and only those who win the auction have the right to fish there. The regulation also allows fisherwomen, especially widows, to catch fish in all the available fishing grounds in Rantau Baru so that they can continue to earn some income (Fig. 5.2).

Fig. 5.2
Two passive trackers of the G P S of the fishing grounds are almost the same in dry and rainy seasons for both men and women.

Fishing grounds of fishermen and fisherwomen in (a) the dry and (b) the rainy (flood) seasons

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5.3 Fishing Activities in Rantau Baru

5.3.1 Fishing Gear

Fisheries in Rantau Baru are artisanal; fishers use low-tech fishing gear with simple tools that do not require special knowledge or skills to operate. Such gear makes it possible for anyone to work as a permanent or part-time fisher. The fishing gear used by fishers include traps, gill nets, mini long lines, poles, lines, lift nets, and cast nets (Figs. 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, and 5.7). Each type of fishing gear has a different target fish, and is employed according to the conditions of the fishing location. We can find many similarities between traditional fishers in Rantau Baru and those in villages worldwide, especially in their choice of fishing gear depending on the similarity of fishing ground conditions and the types of primary target fishes (e.g. Rahman et al. 2017). Most fishing gear material, such as nets, ropes, yarn, sinkers, and buoys, are bought at local markets in the district capital and the provincial capital. Other materials such as wood, bamboo, rattan and cork can be found in and near Rantau Baru.Footnote 1 Traditional fishing gear is generally made using materials that are readily available around residences. Therefore, traditional fishers depend on the peat swamp forest around the village not only for fishing grounds, but also for fishing gear.

Fig. 5.3
A bar graph of the number of fishing gear versus types of fishing gear. A large trap has a maximum of 4250 fishing gear and the next maximum gear for a gill net with 1000 gear.

Number and types of fishing gear operated by fishers in Rantau Baru

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Fig. 5.4
An illustration of a fish trap and eel trap. A. It is made up of a cubical wooden frame covered on all sides by multifilament and a funnel on one side to trap the fish. B. A cylindrical body with chicken wire and circular wire frames in between, the bottom is covered by a plastic cover and the top with a funnel is made of bamboo.

Design and construction of (a) large traps for fish and (b) small traps for eels

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Fig. 5.5
An illustration of the mini log line construction. The main line consists of a branch line to which a hook is attached. The hook is of J shaped with a hole on the top labeled eye, from the hole to the bend is called the shank, then the bend, the tip of J is the sharp called point, the inner turn is called the throat and a sharp edge at the inner side is called the barb.

Illustration of the mini long line construction in Rantau Baru

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Fig. 5.6
An illustration of the construction of the gill net. The net consists of the upper line connected with buoys and the lower line connected with sinkers with two sign buoys connected at two upper endpoints. Below is a photo of a man in a boat on a water body.

Design and construction of the gill net used in Rantau Baru

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Fig. 5.7
An illustration of the cast net. The net is of conical shape with a big circular shape opening labeled mouth with sinkers attached to it, the conical part is made of net, and tip has ropes attached to it.

Illustration of the cast net used by local fishermen in Rantau Baru

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The most commonly used fishing gear by fishers in Rantau Baru are large and small traps. The large traps (pengilars) catch almost all species of fish and shrimp both in rivers and swamp areas (Fig. 5.4a). Small traps are used to catch swamp eel (Monopterus albus) (Fig. 5.4b) and are constructed using plastic pipes, woven bamboo, or rattan. A funnel at the front of the trap prevents the swamp eel from escaping once they enter the trap. Sometimes, the fishers construct two funnels, at the front and center of the trap. The end of the trap is covered with plastic or a coconut shell. This cover can be opened and closed, and the bait is placed in it to entice the fish into the trap (Fig. 5.4b).

Two types of line fishing are used in Rantau Baru: pole and line, and long line. Pole and line are used as substitutes while operating the main fishing gear. Once fishers set up their main fishing gear, such as a trap or stationery gill net, they use the pole and line while waiting for the hauling time. The construction of the mini long line in Rantau Baru is quite simple (Fig. 5.5). This fishing gear consists of only three main parts: the main line made of polyester with a diameter of 3 mm, a branch line made of 1 mm monofilament, and a number 7 hook. The branch line is not equipped with a snapper, so fishers tie the branch line to the main line using a double English knot during the setup. The branch line is not equipped with a swivel, and the distance between each branch line depends on the fishing ground conditions, so it does not have a fixed range. The main target of line fishing is predatory fish from the Bagridae, Claridae, Siluridae, Pangasidae, and Chandidae families. Line fishing is equipped with live fish bait when used, so the size of the catch is relatively bigger than that of other fishing methods. Line fishing is used in almost all the fishing areas in Rantau Baru, such as the Kampar River mainstream, tributaries, and oxbow lakes. In the flood season, the mini long line is used in floodplain areas. During the dry season, mini long lines are used from the riverbanks. The ideal mini-long line fishing area is a submerged area. The mini-long line is used from a stationary position and is used periodically for hauling.

A gill net is widely used by both men and women fishers to catch large fishes, such as those in the Notopteridae and Osphronemidae families (Fig. 5.6). It is possible to operate a gill net using a small boat. The cast net is a type of fishing gear widely used in oxbow lakes and rivers with sloping coastal contours. Almost all species can be caught by a cast net. The diameter of the cast net used in Rantau Baru varies from 2.5 to 5.0 m, with webbing made of polyamide monofilament No. 8 and a mesh size of 2.5 cm. The bottom of the cast net is equipped with a chain sinker made of lead with a diameter of 10 mm, while the upper part is made of polypropylene rope with a diameter of 5 mm (Fig. 5.7). Generally, the cast net is used by fishers during the dry season when the water discharge decreases, and the waters become shallow in the oxbow lakes, swamps, and small rivers and the fish are confined in these areas. On the other hand, the cast net is not for use during the rainy season when the waters of the Kampar River merge with the oxbows and the swamp by flooding and the fish spread and migrate all over the oxbow lakes, swamps, and small rivers.

5.3.2 Boats (pompong)

Rantau Baru experiences severe flooding periodically every year. The depth of the floods can reach 1.5–2.0 m for a period of 2–4 months. This means that boats and motorboats are the main transportation for the Rantau Baru community. Three types of boats are used by fishers, namely, boats or canoes, outboard motorboats, and fishing boats. The boat capacity is only 0.1–0.2 gross tonnage (GT), while the maximum outboard motorboat capacity is 0.5 GT. Some fishers own a fishing boat with a capacity of 2–3 GT (Fig. 5.8). Fishers mainly use outboard motorboats, as they are inexpensive and equipped with a small, fuel-efficient engine. In addition, outboard motorboats are small and have a shallow draft, which gives them good maneuverability to reach shallow and narrow waters, optimizing their fishing capacity.

Fig. 5.8
A bar graph of the number of fishing boats versus types of fishing boats. The maximum number of fishing boats used are outboard motorboats, 100, next are normal boats up to 40 and the minimum are fishing vessels up to 30. All values are approximated.

The number of fishing vessels in Rantau Baru in 2020

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Small fishing boats with the capacity of 1.5–2 GT are efficient in terms of operation, maintenance, and variable costs when carrying out fishing operations (Ahmad and Nofrizal 2015). Since the fishing grounds in local river and swamp waters are limited in range and depth and continuous fishing activity does not exceed one day, it is rational for traditional fishers with limited capital to use a small boat.

Construction of fishing boats is done in Rantau Baru or a nearby village. The primary material used is wood obtained from the forest in and around the peat swamp area. Boat engines and other equipment, such as propeller axles and propellers, are imported from Pekanbaru City. Knowledge about the manufacture of fishing boats has been passed down from generation to generation (Nofrizal and Ahmad 2013). The fundamental obstacle in manufacturing fishing boats is the scarcity of wood and planks to build them. Deforestation and the Forestry Ministry’s logging moratorium policy area causing a reduction in the construction of wooden fishing boats. Under these conditions, shipbuilders look for other jobs as fishers, farmers, builders, and others (Nofrizal et al. 2014a, 2014b). In turn, this deindustrialization makes it challenging to find fishing vessels, creating an obstacle for fishers in Rantau Baru trying to develop their fishing operations. The same problem also arises in the wooden shipyard industry of Samut Sakhon, Thailand (Kanoksilapatham 2016) and Bagan Siapiapi, Indonesia (Nofrizal et al. 2014a, 2014b).

5.4 Commodification of Fishery Catches

According to secondary data from the Pelalawan District Fisheries and Marine Service Department, fish production in Pangkalan Kerinci Sub-district reached 245.39 tons in 2020, the fifth largest in the region, with most of the catch coming from Rantau Baru village. Kuala Kampar and Teluk Meranti sub-districts are the largest fish producers in Pelalawan District along the Malacca Straits (Fig. 5.9), but their production comes not only from freshwater fish, but also from marine fisheries. So, the freshwater production from Pangkalan Kerinci, especially from Rantau Baru village, is quite significant in Pelalawan District.

Fig. 5.9
A bar chart of fisheries production in tons versus the villages. The maximum production of 2545 in Kuala Kampar village, next 1093 in Teluk Meranti village, and 535 in Langgam village.

Fisheries production in the villages of Pelalawan District, Riau Province, Indonesia in 2020

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Table 5.2 shows the survey results on the retail price of fishery products from fishers and traders in the Pelalawan market. We observed at least 44 fish species belonging to ten families that had been caught and were being sold by fishers in Rantau Baru. Based on interviews with 155 respondents who work as fishers as well as in fish processing, local wholesale prices of fresh fish and shrimp range from US$0.69 to US$9.00 per kilogram. Giant prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) are the most expensive fishery commodity, making it the highest priority target of local fishers. Giant prawn is a seasonal catch, occurring when the river water discharge increases.

Table 5.2 Survey results of local fish wholesale and retail prices in Rantau Baru and in Pelalawan and Pekanbaru markets
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Fishery catches in Pangkalan Kerinci, especially in Rantau Baru, change according to the seasons, as depicted in Fig. 5.10. During the monsoon season (October to April), the land floods can last for 3–4 months. Fishery production in this season is larger than in the dry season (May to September). The fishery catch trends were almost constant from 2015 to 2019.

Fig. 5.10
A line graph of production in kilograms versus months for the years 2015 through 2019. The trend of production is constant at 30000 with little fluctuations for the months of January to April, then there is a fall from April to September and a rise from September to December for all the years.

Seasonal changes in fishing catches in Pangkalan Kerinci Sub-district during 2015-2019

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According to interviews with middlemen traders, local market traders, and fishers regarding the price of fishery commodities from Rantau Baru, local wholesale prices in Rantau Baru are significantly lower than market prices. For example, the price of shrimp commodities for fishers in Rantau Baru is US$9.00 per kilogram. The price can increase by as much as 27.77%, with price of US$12.46 per kilogram at the consumer level.

Fishers in Rantau Baru process their fishery products into both smoked and dried fish to increase the selling price. The processing technology is very simple, using only a furnace, chicken wire netting, and nets to dry and smoke fish. Furthermore, the fuel for smoking fish is wood obtained from the forest around the village. One advantage of processing fish is that the products can become more durable. We observed the increase in the price of fresh fish products processed into smoked and dried fish can reach US$7.6 per kilogram, especially for fish commodities made from Siluridae (Table 5.2). Several types of fish are not processed by the fishers of Rantau Baru. These include Chitala sp., Albulichthys albuloides, Puntioplites waandersi, Puntioplites feathers, Puntigrus tetrazona, Rasbora argyrotaenia, Rasbora rutteni, Rasboraawarensis, Monopterus albus, Trichogaster trichopterus, Trichogaster leerii, Sphaerichthys osphromenoides, Channa striata, Channa Lucius, Channa bankanensis, and Macrobrachium rosenbergii. This is because neither the texture nor the taste of these species are good when the fish is smoked or dried. Consequently, these processed fish are not accepted in the market or by consumers.

According to a survey of the distribution and sale of catches from the Central Kampar watershed, such catches are sold both at local markets in the district and in Pekanbaru City, the provincial capital. Pelalawan District is famous for producing fresh and processed fish, such as smoked, dried, and salted fish. The most famous freshwater fish-producing areas in Pelalawan District are Langgam, Rantau Baru, and Teluk Meranti villages. According to the results of surveys and interviews with middlemen traders, fishery products from Pelalawan District are also well known on Java Island, especially in Jakarta, because of the provincial highway in the east that crosses Pelalawan District. This eastern route is the shortest and is mainly used by vehicles driving to Java, Jambi, South Sumatra, and Lampung. Some travelers on this route buy fish, especially the smoked fish products, as souvenirs.

The decline and fluctuation of the catch from year to year is a problem for the long term prospects for traditional fisheries in Rantau Baru. One of the viable strategies to achieve both sustainable fisheries and sustainable peat swamp ecosystem management is to empower the already popular recreational fishing in Rantau Baru.

5.5 Recreational Fishing in Rantau Baru

Recreational fishing in Rantau Baru has the potential to reduce the number of unemployed, which was recorded as high as 35 persons (or 5.62% of the labor force) in 2020. The unemployed can work as fishers or fishing tour guides. Freshwater recreational fishing has a long tradition and is now enjoyed by millions worldwide (Cowx 2001). Recreational fishing is an activity carried out by individuals for sport as well as domestic consumption, not for commerce (Cowx 2001). In European countries and the United States, recreational fisheries are essential sources of income and employment in regional and national economies, providing practitioners with social, cultural, physiological, and physical benefits, food security, and exerting biological impacts on fish stocks (Hickley and Tompkins 1998; Cowx and Arlinghaus 2008). Successful recreational fishing can provide human and financial resources for the sustainable management of fishing sites and their surrounding environments. In some developed countries, recreational fishing is the main form of inland water and ocean use (Cowx 2001). Approximately one-tenth of the population of the entire country regularly undertakes recreational fishing in Europe, the USA, and Canada. However, national and international policies for managing and developing the conservation of resources and ecosystems for recreational fisheries have been largely ignored, perhaps due to perceptions of the sector as less profitable than commercial fisheries (Cooke and Cowx 2006).

Rantau Baru is known by the people in Riau as one of the best recreational fishing destinations in the province. The popularity and condition of fishing spots in Rantau Baru can be seen through social media and YouTube.Footnote 2 The peak times for tourist visits to Rantau Baru are Saturdays and Sundays; however, tourists still visit to fish throughout the week. Recreational fishing contributes to the increase of incomes for the people in Rantau Baru. According to interviews with boat owners and fishing tourist guides, fishing tourism activity provided an income of US$37,242.67 from boats and boat rentals in 2019. In that year, 6,623 tourists came to Rantau Baru for fishing (Table 5.3). Floods in the rainy season cut off the road to Rantau Baru, making it difficult for tourists to visit by car for recreational fishing. Subsequently, the number of visitors for fishing fluctuates significantly between the rainy and dry season, rising from just 6 in March 2019 to 976 in June, causing incomes to fluctuate from only US$42.12 to US$5,461.79.

Table 5.3 The number of boat rentals and fishing excursions to Rantau Baru in 2019
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If infrastructure, such as the road to the village, restaurants, guesthouses, and angler shops, is developed, more recreational fishing tourists will visit Rantau Baru in any season and that will increase the villager income significantly. Even now, there is an unwritten environmentally friendly regulation on the prohibition of fishing methods and gear destructive to the environment, including the use of drag nets, electric fishing rods, intoxicants. The rising popularity of recreational fishing will further motivate villagers to recognize the importance of peat forest and swamp conservation and develop more sustainable and environmentally friendly management practices for the peat forests and swamps in Rantau Baru.

5.6 Conclusion

Submerged forests in peatlands have fishery potential due to the biodiversity of the fish and aquatic animals living in them. This fishery resource has potential as both a source of livelihood for fishers in Rantau Baru and as a fishing tourism destination for people in Riau Province. The fishing gear of local fishermen makes use of materials from the surrounding environment. Meanwhile, fishing tourism activities have increased the family economy of fishers through boat rentals and tourist guide services. The preservation of submerged forests in the environment must be maintained to sustain local community life and the biodiversity of inland waters.