Abstract
Nitrogen is essential for all lives since reactive nitrogen (all nitrogen except for nitrogen gas) constitutes protein and nucleic acid. Synthesized ammonia, chiefly used for nitrogen fertilizers, greatly supports human food production for the growing population. The growing use of synthetic fertilizers and fossil fuels has increased reactive nitrogen emissions to the environment, leading to adverse effects on human and ecosystem health. This global issue of maximizing the benefits of reactive nitrogen while minimizing nitrogen pollution is one of the key issues for the twenty-first century. To communicate this nitrogen issue to stakeholders in different industries including farmers and consumers, the nitrogen footprint (NF) has been developed as an indicator to quantify direct and indirect reactive nitrogen emissions throughout the lifecycle of goods and services of our consumption. We introduce methodologies of the NF models in relation to other environmental footprints and demonstrate three applications of nitrogen footprint models. The feed-sensitive NF model has been developed as a bottom-up approach and applied to fish and seafood analysis with two sets of parameters called virtual nitrogen factors (VNFs) for the world and Japan. Using the Japanese VNFs, effects of dietary changes to the food NF of Japan and possible reduction scenarios for our food choice were assessed. The global NF model has been constructed as a top-down approach and applied to assess 188 countries in 2010 using multi-region input–output analysis to trace international supply chains. These NF models contribute to the development of sustainable food systems and integrated nutrient management addressing trade-offs between different nitrogen pollutants and other environmental issues.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Castner EA, Leach AM, Leary N, Baron J, Compton JE, Galloway JN et al (2017) The nitrogen footprint tool network: a multi-institution program to reduce nitrogen pollution. Sustain J Rec 10(2):79–88
Cattell Noll L, Leach AM, Seufert V, Galloway JN, Atwell B, Erisman JW, Shade J (2020) The nitrogen footprint of organic food in the United States. Environ Res Lett 15(4):045004
Compton JE, Harrison JA, Dennis RL, Greaver TL, Hill BH, Jordan SJ et al (2011) Ecosystem services altered by human changes in the nitrogen cycle: a new perspective for US decision making. Ecol Lett 14(8):804–815
Compton JE, Leach AM, Castner EA, Galloway JN (2017) Assessing the social and environmental costs of institution nitrogen footprints. Sustain J Rec 10(2):114–122
Čuček L, Klemeš JJ, Kravanja Z (2012) A review of footprint analysis tools for monitoring impacts on sustainability. J Clean Prod 34:9–20
Cui S, Shi Y, Malik A, Lenzen M, Gao B, Huang W (2016) A hybrid method for quantifying China’s nitrogen footprint during urbanisation from 1990 to 2009. Environ Int 97:137–145
Davidson EA, Suddick EC, Rice CW, Prokopy LS (2015) More food, low pollution (Mo Fo Lo Po): a grand challenge for the 21st century. J Environ Qual 44(2):305–311
De Vries W, Kros J, Kroeze C, Seitzinger SP (2013) Assessing planetary and regional nitrogen boundaries related to food security and adverse environmental impacts. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 5(3–4):392–402
Dukes ESM, Galloway J, Band LE, Cattaneo L, Groffman PM, Leach AM, Castner EA (2020) A community nitrogen footprint analysis of Baltimore City, Maryland. Environ Res Lett 15:075007
Eguchi S, Hirano N (2019) Mitigation potential of reactive nitrogen loss to the environment by improving Japanese consumers’ dietary life and future predictions along with the United Nations SDGs scenario. Jpn J Soil Sci Plant Nutr 90:32–46. (In Japanese with English summary)
Einarsson R, Cederberg C (2019) Is the nitrogen footprint fit for purpose? An assessment of models and proposed uses. J Environ Manag 240:198–208
Elrys AS, Raza S, Abdo AI, Liu Z, Chen Z, Zhou J (2019) Budgeting nitrogen flows and the food nitrogen footprint of Egypt during the past half century: challenges and opportunities. Environ Int 130:104895
Elrys AS, Desoky E-SM, Ali A, Zhang J, Cai Z, Cheng Y (2021) Sub-Saharan Africa’s food nitrogen and phosphorus footprints: a scenario analysis for 2050. Sci Total Environ 752:141964
Erisman JW, Leach A, Bleeker A, Atwell B, Cattaneo L, Galloway J (2018) An integrated approach to a nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) Indicator for the food production–consumption chain. Sustainability 10(4):925
Fang K, Heijungs R (2015) Investigating the inventory and characterization aspects of footprinting methods: lessons for the classification and integration of footprints. J Clean Prod 108:1028–1036
Fang K, Heijungs R, de Snoo GR (2014) Theoretical exploration for the combination of the ecological, energy, carbon, and water footprints: overview of a footprint family. Ecol Indic 36:508–518
Feng K, Chapagain A, Suh S, Pfister S, Hubacek K (2011) Comparison of bottom-up and top-down approaches to calculating the water footprints of nations. Econ Syst Res 23(4):371–385
Fowler D, Coyle M, Skiba U, Sutton MA, Cape JN, Reis S et al (2013) The global nitrogen cycle in the twenty-first century. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Ser B Biol Sci 368(1621):20130164
Galli A, Wiedmann T, Ercin E, Knoblauch D, Ewing B, Giljum S (2012) Integrating ecological, carbon and water footprint into a “footprint family” of indicators: definition and role in tracking human pressure on the planet. Ecol Indic 16:100–112
Galloway JN, Cowling EB (2002) Reactive nitrogen and the world: 200 years of change. Ambio 31(2):64–71
Galloway JN, Aber JD, Erisman JW, Seitzinger SP, Howarth RW, Cowling EB, Cosby BJ (2003) The nitrogen Cascade. Bioscience 53(4):341–356
Galloway JN, Townsend AR, Erisman JW, Bekunda M, Cai Z, Freney JR et al (2008) Transformation of the nitrogen cycle: recent trends, questions, and potential solutions. Science 320(5878):889–892
Galloway JN, Leach AM, Bleeker A, Erisman JW (2013) A chronology of human understanding of the nitrogen cycle. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Ser B Biol Sci 368(1621):20130120–20130120
Galloway JN, Winiwarter W, Leip A, Leach AM, Bleeker A, Erisman JW (2014) Nitrogen footprints: past, present and future. Environ Res Lett 9(11):115003
Global Footprint Network (2009) Ecological footprint standards 2009. Global Footprint Network. Available online at www.footprintstandards.org
Gu B, Chang J, Min Y, Ge Y, Zhu Q, Galloway JN, Peng C (2013) The role of industrial nitrogen in the global nitrogen biogeochemical cycle. Sci Rep 3(1):2579
Guinée JB, Lindeijer E (eds) (2002) Handbook on life cycle assessment: operational guide to the ISO standards, vol 7. Springer Science & Business Media, Berlin, p 692
Guinée JB, Heijungs R, Huppes G, Zamagni A, Masoni P, Buonamici R et al (2011) Life cycle assessment: past, present, and future †. Environ Sci Technol 45(1):90–96
Guo M, Chen X, Bai Z, Jiang R, Galloway JN, Leach AM et al (2017) How China’s nitrogen footprint of food has changed from 1961 to 2010. Environ Res Lett 12(10):104006
Hamilton HA, Ivanova D, Stadler K, Merciai S, Schmidt J, van Zelm R et al (2018) Trade and the role of non-food commodities for global eutrophication. Nat Sustain 1(6):314–321
Hayashi K, Oita A, Lassaletta L, Shindo J, Shibata H, Sakurai G, Eguchi S (2018) Reducing nitrogen footprints of consumer-level food loss and protein overconsumption in Japan, considering gender and age differences. Environ Res Lett 13(12):124027
Hayashi K, Oita A, Nishina K (2020) Concealed nitrogen footprint in protein-free foods: an empirical example using oil palm products. Environ Res Lett 15(3):035006
Heffer P (2013) Assessment of fertilizer use by crop at the global level 2010–2010/11. https://www.ifastat.org/plant-nutrition
Hertwich EG, Peters GP (2009) Carbon footprint of nations: a global, trade-linked analysis. Environ Sci Technol 43(16):6414–6420. https://doi.org/10.1021/es803496a
Hoekstra AY, Hung PQ (2002) Virtual water trade: a quantification of virtual waterflows between nations in relation to international crop trade, Value of water research report series, vol 11. UNESCO-IHE, Delft
Høgevold NM (2011) A corporate effort towards a sustainable business model. Eur Bus Rev 23(4):392–400
Houlton BZ, Almaraz M, Aneja V, Austin AT, Bai E, Cassman KG et al (2019) A world of Cobenefits: solving the global nitrogen challenge. Earth’s Future 7(8):865–872
Hutton MO, Leach AM, Leip A, Galloway JN, Bekunda M, Sullivan C, Lesschen JP (2017) Toward a nitrogen footprint calculator for Tanzania. Environ Res Lett 12(3):034016
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2006) In: Eggleston HS, Buendia L, Miwa K, Ngara T, Tanabe K (eds) 2006 IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories, prepared by the national greenhouse gas inventories programme. IPCC, Geneva. http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/
Kido Y, Shizuka F, Shimomura Y, Sugiyama T (2012) Dietary reference intakes for Japanese 2010: protein. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol 59(supplement):S36–S43
Kitzes J, Galli A, Bagliani M, Barrett J, Dige G, Ede S et al (2009) A research agenda for improving national ecological footprint accounts. Ecol Econ 68(7):1991–2007
Lassaletta L, Billen G, Grizzetti B, Garnier J, Leach AM, Galloway JN (2014) Food and feed trade as a driver in the global nitrogen cycle: 50-year trends. Biogeochemistry 118(1–3):225–241
Leach AM, Galloway JN, Bleeker A, Erisman JW, Kohn R, Kitzes J (2012) A nitrogen footprint model to help consumers understand their role in nitrogen losses to the environment. Environ Dev 1(1):40–66
Leach AM, Majidi AN, Galloway JN, Greene AJ (2013) Toward institutional sustainability: a nitrogen footprint model for a university. Sustain J Rec 6(4):211–219
Leach AM, Emery KA, Gephart J, Davis KF, Erisman JW, Leip A et al (2016) Environmental impact food labels combining carbon, nitrogen, and water footprints. Food Policy 61:213–223
Leach AM, Galloway JN, Castner EA, Andrews J, Leary N, Aber JD (2017) An integrated tool for calculating and reducing institution carbon and nitrogen footprints. Sustain J Rec 10(2):140–148
Leip A, Leach A, Musinguzi P, Tumwesigye T, Olupot G, Tenywa JS et al (2014) Nitrogen-neutrality: a step towards sustainability. Environ Res Lett 9(11):115001
Lenzen M (2008) Double-counting in life cycle calculations. J Ind Ecol 12(4):583–599
Lenzen M, Crawford R (2009) The path exchange method for hybrid LCA. Environ Sci Technol 43(21):8251–8256
Lenzen M, Moran D, Kanemoto K, Foran B, Lobefaro L, Geschke A (2012) International trade drives biodiversity threats in developing nations. Nature 486(7401):109–112
Liang X, Leach AM, Galloway JN, Gu B, Lam SK, Chen D (2016) Beef and coal are key drivers of Australia’s high nitrogen footprint. Sci Rep 6(1):39644
Liang X, Lam SK, Gu B, Galloway JN, Leach AM, Chen D (2018) Reactive nitrogen spatial intensity (NrSI): a new indicator for environmental sustainability. Glob Environ Chang 52(December 2017):101–107
Lin D, Hanscom L, Murthy A, Galli A, Evans M, Neill E et al (2018) Ecological footprint accounting for countries: updates and results of the National Footprint Accounts, 2012–2018. Resources 7(3):58
Liu C, Kroeze C, Hoekstra AY, Gerbens-Leenes W (2012) Past and future trends in grey water footprints of anthropogenic nitrogen and phosphorus inputs to major world rivers. Ecol Indic 18:42–49
Metson GS, MacDonald GK, Leach AM, Compton JE, Harrison JA, Galloway JN (2020) The U.S. consumer phosphorus footprint: where do nitrogen and phosphorus diverge? Environ Res Lett 15:105022
Miller RE, Blair PD (2009) Input-output analysis: foundations and extensions. Cambridge University Press, New York
Minx JC, Wiedmann T, Wood R, Peters GP, Lenzen M, Owen A et al (2009) Input–output analysis and carbon footprinting: an overview of applications. Econ Syst Res 21(3):187–216
Mueller ND, Gerber JS, Johnston M, Ray DK, Ramankutty N, Foley JA (2012) Closing yield gaps through nutrient and water management. Nature 490(7419):254
Oita A, Malik A, Kanemoto K, Geschke A, Nishijima S, Lenzen M (2016a) Substantial nitrogen pollution embedded in international trade. Nat Geosci 9(2):111–115
Oita A, Nagano I, Matsuda H (2016b) An improved methodology for calculating the nitrogen footprint of seafood. Ecol Indic 60:1091–1103
Oita A, Nagano I, Matsuda H (2018) Food nitrogen footprint reductions related to a balanced Japanese diet. Ambio 47(3):318–326
Oita A, Wirasenjaya F, Liu J, Webeck E, Matsubae K (2020) Trends in the food nitrogen and phosphorus footprints for Asia’s giants: China, India, and Japan. Resour Conserv Recycl 157:104752
Rees WE (1992) Ecological footprints and appropriated carrying capacity: what urban economics leaves out. Environ Urban 4(2):121–130
Ridoutt BG, Pfister S (2010) A revised approach to water footprinting to make transparent the impacts of consumption and production on global freshwater scarcity. Glob Environ Chang 20(1):113–120
Rockström J, Steffen W, Noone K, Persson Å, Chapin FS, Lambin EF et al (2009) A safe operating space for humanity. Nature 461(7263):472–475
San Martín W (2020) Global nitrogen in sustainable development: four challenges at the Interface of science and policy. In: Filho WL, Azul AM, Brandli L, Salvia AL, Wall T (eds) Life on land. Springer, Cham, pp 1–16
Shibata H, Cattaneo LR, Leach AM, Galloway JN (2014) First approach to the Japanese nitrogen footprint model to predict the loss of nitrogen to the environment. Environ Res Lett 9(11):115013
Shibata H, Galloway JN, Leach AM, Cattaneo LR, Cattell Noll L, Erisman JW et al (2017) Nitrogen footprints: regional realities and options to reduce nitrogen loss to the environment. Ambio 46(2):129–142
Shindo J, Yanagawa A (2017) Top-down approach to estimating the nitrogen footprint of food in Japan. Ecol Indic 78:502–511
Sinclair TR, Rufty TW (2012) Nitrogen and water resources commonly limit crop yield increases, not necessarily plant genetics. Glob Food Sec 1(2):94–98
Smith BD (2005) Reassessing Coxcatlan cave and the early history of domesticated plants in Mesoamerica. Proc Natl Acad Sci 102(27):9438–9445
Springmann M, Clark M, Mason-D’Croz D, Wiebe K, Bodirsky BL, Lassaletta L et al (2018) Options for keeping the food system within environmental limits. Nature 562(7728):519–525
Steffen W, Richardson K, Rockström J, Cornell SE, Fetzer I, Bennett EM et al (2015) Planetary boundaries: guiding human development on a changing planet. Science 347(6223):1259855
Strømman AH, Peters GP, Hertwich EG (2009) Approaches to correct for double counting in tiered hybrid life cycle inventories. J Clean Prod 17(2):248–254
Sutton MA, Howard CM, Erisman JW, Billen G, Bleeker A, Grennfelt P et al (eds) (2011) The European nitrogen assessment: sources, effects and policy perspectives. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Sutton MA, Bleeker A, Howard CM, Bekunda M, Grizzetti B, de Vries W et al (2013) Our nutrient world: the challenge to produce more food and energy with less pollution. In: Global overview of nutrient management. Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Edinburgh on behalf of the Global Partnership on Nutrient Management and the International Nitrogen Initiative, Edinburgh
Sutton MA, Howard CM, Adhya TK, Baker E, Baron J, Basir A, et al. (2019a) Nitrogen - grasping the challenge. A manifesto for science-in-action through the international nitrogen management system report, Edinburgh
Sutton M, Raghuram N, Kumar Adhya T, Baron J, Cox C, de Vries W et al (2019b) The nitrogen fix: from nitrogen cycle pollution to nitrogen circular economy. In: Frontiers 2018/19: emerging issues of environmental concern. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, pp 52–64
Tilman D, Cassman KG, Matson PA, Naylor R, Polasky S (2002) Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices. Nature 418(6898):671–677
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2014) Excess nitrogen in the environment. In: UNEP, UNEP year book 2014: emerging issues in our global environment. Nairobi: UNEP, pp 7–11. Available online at www.unep.org/yearbook/2014/
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2019) Resolution adopted by the United Nations Environment Assembly on 15 March 2019 on Sustainable nitrogen management. UNEP/EA.4/Res.14. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi
Uwizeye A, Gerber PJ, Schulte RPO, de Boer IJM (2016) A comprehensive framework to assess the sustainability of nutrient use in global livestock supply chains. J Clean Prod 129:647–658
Uwizeye A, de Boer IJM, Opio CI, Schulte RPO, Falcucci A, Tempio G et al (2020) Nitrogen emissions along global livestock supply chains. Nat Food 1(7):437–446
Vanham D, Leip A, Galli A, Kastner T, Bruckner M, Uwizeye A et al (2019) Environmental footprint family to address local to planetary sustainability and deliver on the SDGs. Sci Total Environ 693:133642
Wackernagel M, Rees W (1996) Our ecological footprint: reducing human impact on the earth. New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island
Xia Y, Liao C, Wu D, Liu Y (2020) Dynamic analysis and prediction of food nitrogen footprint of urban and rural residents in Shanghai. Int J Environ Res Public Health 17(5):1760
Xue X, Landis AE (2010) Eutrophication potential of food consumption patterns. Environ Sci Technol 44(16):6450–6456
Zhang Y, Liu Y, Shibata H, Gu B, Wang Y (2018) Virtual nitrogen factors and nitrogen footprints associated with nitrogen loss and food wastage of China’s main food crops. Environ Res Lett 13(1):014017
Zhang X, Davidson EA, Zou T, Lassaletta L, Quan Z, Li T, Zhang W (2020) Quantifying nutrient budgets for sustainable nutrient management. Glob Biogeochem Cycles 34(3):60–71
Acknowledgments
This work was supported in part by the Environment Research and Technology Development Fund (S-9 and S-14), Ministry of the Environment, Japan and JSPS KAKENHI Grant No. JP 19 K20496.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2021 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Oita, A., Nagano, I., Matsuda, H. (2021). Impact of Reactive Nitrogen and Nitrogen Footprint. In: Matsuda, H. (eds) Ecological Risk Management. Ecological Research Monographs. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6934-4_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6934-4_5
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-33-6933-7
Online ISBN: 978-981-33-6934-4
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)