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Caste Realities and the Struggles of India’s Adivasi and Dalit Population in Accessing Groundwater

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Groundwater Law and Management in India

Abstract

India’s Adivasi and Dalit population—officially termed the “Scheduled Tribes” (ST) and the “Scheduled Castes” (SC)—have faced, and continue to face, many social disadvantages. This Chapter examines one such discrimination that these groups face and the existing nature of their rights over groundwater. It explores three significant challenges faced by them as regards accessing groundwater resources: firstly, the individual ownership of groundwater tied to the concept of private land ownership; secondly, the practice of untouchability, discrimination and the social exclusion of such communities from using public water structures; and thirdly, the social subjugation by dominant castes and elites that hinders their pursuit for water justice. In doing so, this chapter examines the ideal proposed by the 2016 Model Groundwater Bill to remove private monopoly over groundwater and vest its control and management with the State in public trust. The central argument that it forwards is that this may enable the impoverished and the marginalized better access to the much-needed clean water for their survival, provided that the constitutional and legislative protections afforded to them are effectively enforced. This could also alleviate the everyday struggles faced by the Adivasi and Dalit population in accessing water.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Suhag [1].

  2. 2.

    niti aayog, composite water management index 22 (2018).

  3. 3.

    india const. arts. 14 and 15.

  4. 4.

    Id. at art. 15, cl. (2), sub-cl. (b).

  5. 5.

    Id. at art. 17.

  6. 6.

    gov’t of india, census 2011 a-5 union primary census , Abstract.

  7. 7.

    india const. arts. 366(24) and 366(25).

  8. 8.

    gov’t of india, annual report 2019–2020 Annexure-5B (2020).

  9. 9.

    Idat. Annexure-9A (2020).

  10. 10.

    Listed by the Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order, 1950.

  11. 11.

    Government of India [2].

  12. 12.

    Trust and Kennedy [3].

  13. 13.

    india const. arts. 15(4), 124A, 243D, 243T, 46, 330, 332, 338, 338A, 338B, 339 and 340, and Schedule V.

  14. 14.

    The Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955, §§ 2(a), 4(iv) and 7.

  15. 15.

    The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, §§3(1)(g), 3(1)(x), 3(1)(za)(A).

  16. 16.

    The Indigenous and Tribal Populations Convention, Jun. 5, 1959, C107.

  17. 17.

    Id. at art. 1(1)(b); G.A. Res. 61/295, preamble, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (Oct. 2, 2007).

  18. 18.

    Bijoy and Nongbri [4].

  19. 19.

    Id.

  20. 20.

    Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights [5].

  21. 21.

    The United Nations Water Conference [6].

  22. 22.

    Misiedjan and Gupta [7, p. 81]; See generally Ángela Poma Poma v. Peru, Human Rights Committee, CCPR/C/95/D/1457/2006 (Apr. 24, 2009).

  23. 23.

    Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, supra note 20, at ¶ 7.

  24. 24.

    United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Agenda 21, Rio Declaration, Forest Principles, ¶ 18 of Chaps. 14, 18 and 26 (1992).

  25. 25.

    Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, supra note 20, at ¶ 16(d).

  26. 26.

    Berlin Conference, Berlin Rules on Water Resources, art. 20 (2004).

  27. 27.

    G.A. Res. 61/295, arts. 25 and 26, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (Oct. 2, 2007).

  28. 28.

    See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights art. 26, Dec. 16, 1966, 999 U.N.T.S.171; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights art. 2(2), Dec. 16, 1966, 993 U.N.T.S. 3.

  29. 29.

    The Indigenous and Tribal Populations Convention art. 2(2), Jun. 5, 1959, C107.

  30. 30.

    See generally Acton v. Blundell152 Eng. Rep. 123 (1843).

  31. 31.

    The Indian Easements Act, 1882, § 7, illus. (g).

  32. 32.

    Vani [8, pp. 443–444].

  33. 33.

    Id.

  34. 34.

    See State of West Bengal v. Kesoram Industries Ltd., AIR 2005 SC 1646, ¶391 (India).

  35. 35.

    The National Water Policy, 2012, p. 4.

  36. 36.

    The revised Model Groundwater Bill, 2017, which was sent to the Indian Government, has not been made publicly available, and hence, this chapter relies on the 2016 version; see also the Model Bill for the Conservation, Protection, Regulation and Management of Groundwater, 2016.

  37. 37.

    Id. at §9(1).

  38. 38.

    Id. at§§ 9(2), 9(3), 9(4).

  39. 39.

    M. C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath, (1997) 1SCC388 (India).

  40. 40.

    State of West Bengal v. Kesoram Industries Ltd., AIR2005SC1646, ¶390 (India).

  41. 41.

    Perumatty Gram Panchayat v. State of Kerala, 2004 (1) KLJ 414, ¶ 12 (India).

  42. 42.

    PTI [9].

  43. 43.

    Advocacy Statement: HRC42—IDSN and MRG on the right to water and caste-based discrimination, minority rights grp. (Sept. 9, 2019), https://minorityrights.org/advocacy-statements/hrc42-idsn-and-mrg-on-the-right-to-water-and-caste-based-discrimination/.

  44. 44.

    Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar, AIR1991SC420, ¶6 (India).

  45. 45.

    The Model Groundwater Bill, 2016, §§ 3(a) and 3(i).

  46. 46.

    Id. at §4(1).

  47. 47.

    Id. at §4(2).

  48. 48.

    The Model Groundwater Bill 2016, §5(1).

  49. 49.

    nat’l comm’n for scheduled tribes, special report: good governance for tribal dev. & admin. 12(2012).

  50. 50.

    Id. at 29.

  51. 51.

    Dutta et al. [10, pp. 68–69].

  52. 52.

    See Oskarsson [11, vol. 14, pp. 29–50]; accord Yadu and Vijayasuryan [12, pp. 1–16].

  53. 53.

    See generally Sekhri [13, pp. 76–102].

  54. 54.

    human rights watch, a report by human rights watch for the united nations world conference against racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance. durban, south africa 5 (2001).

  55. 55.

    Dutta et al., supra note 52, pp. 67–77.

  56. 56.

    For example, Rig Veda (Hymn XXIII, Verse 22).

  57. 57.

    Guru [14].

  58. 58.

    Navsarjan Trust and RFK Center, supra note 12, at 54–55.

  59. 59.

    Indo-Asian News Service [15].

  60. 60.

    Abhiyan et al. [16].

  61. 61.

    See generally Johns [17, pp. 3–5].

  62. 62.

    Dutta et al., supra note 52, at 74.

  63. 63.

    Dutta et al., supra note 52, p. 73.

  64. 64.

    Dutta et al., supra note 52, p. 75.

  65. 65.

    Navsarjan Trust and RFK Center, supra note 12, p. 44.

  66. 66.

    Id.; Dutta et al., supra note 52, p. 64.

  67. 67.

    Abhiyan et al., supra note 62, p. 11.

  68. 68.

    Hindus of Kannamapalaiyam Village v. Kaikkolar Christians, 1910; MariappaNadan v. VaithilingaMudaliar, 1913.

  69. 69.

    NarhariDamodarVaidya v. B. R. Ambedkar, 1937(39) BOMLR1295 (India).

  70. 70.

    State of Karnataka v. AppaBaluIngale, AIR1993SC1126 (India).

  71. 71.

    Id. at ¶ 11, 13 and 36.

  72. 72.

    Purohit [18].

  73. 73.

    Teltumbde [19].

  74. 74.

    The report instead only discusses state-wise cases of obstruction of usage of public places inid. pp. 524, 620.

  75. 75.

    Johari [20].

  76. 76.

    See State of Maharashtra v. Prakash D. Patil,Crl. A. No. 608 of 1977 (India).

  77. 77.

    Naz [21, p. 89].

  78. 78.

    Johns, supra note 63, p. 2.

  79. 79.

    See generally Guru, supra note, p. 59.

  80. 80.

    Navsarjan Trust and RFK Center, supra note 12, p. 44.

  81. 81.

    Naz, supra note 80, p. 92; Soni [22].

  82. 82.

    Naz, supra note 80, p. 92.

  83. 83.

    Naz, supra note 80, pp. 92, 93.

  84. 84.

    Joshi and Fawcett [23], quoting the Commissioner for Scheduled Castes, 1980 cited in Agarwal et al. [24].

  85. 85.

    Moench [25, pp. A-49].

  86. 86.

    State of Karnataka v. AppaBaluIngale, AIR1993SC1126 (India), ¶16.

  87. 87.

    Sampat [26, pp. 108–109].

  88. 88.

    Argade and Narayanan [27, p. 881].

  89. 89.

    Sampat, supra note 90, p. 109.

  90. 90.

    Parmar [28, pp. 200–201].

  91. 91.

    See generally Ramaiah [29].

  92. 92.

    State of Karnataka v. AppaBaluIngale, AIR1993SC1126 (India), ¶13.

  93. 93.

    Baxi [30, pp. 186–191].

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Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank Dr. Tony George Puthucherril for his valuable comments and encouragement and Ms. Tamanna for her research assistance.

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  1. Lecturer, Jindal Global Law School, O.P. Jindal Global University, Haryana, India

    Abhilasha Ramakrishnan

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Correspondence to Abhilasha Ramakrishnan .

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  1. Symbiosis Law School, Hyderabad, India

    Sarfaraz Ahmed Khan

  2. Jindal Global Law School, O. P. Jindal Global University, Sonipat, India

    Tony George Puthucherril

  3. Symbiosis Law School, Hyderabad, India

    Sanu Rani Paul

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Ramakrishnan, A. (2021). Caste Realities and the Struggles of India’s Adivasi and Dalit Population in Accessing Groundwater. In: Khan, S.A., Puthucherril, T.G., Paul, S.R. (eds) Groundwater Law and Management in India. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2617-3_3

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