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Evolution of Gender Role Attitudes and Gender Equality in Russia

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Gendering Post-Soviet Space

Abstract

Social norms and individual attitudes are proven to shape individual behaviour and impact life-course decisions. The present chapter aims to systematize the fragmented evidence on the evolution of the gender role attitudes, and gender equality indicators since the end of the Soviet era to the present days in order to track whether the views of the Russian men and women have been developing towards more egalitarian, or more traditional, direction. The main focus is on such spheres as family formation and fertility, paid and unpaid work, and leadership and politics. The information on directly reported attitudes is withdrawn from a number of country-representative datasets and from polls collected by the Russian leading sociological and market research agencies. In the family formation and fertility sphere, the majority of the phenomena follow the tendencies characteristic to developed countries. The ambiguity and duality of the views can be observed when women’s economic participation, political empowerment, and even sharing of unpaid household duties are addressed.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Inglehart, R, C Haerpfer, A Moreno, C Welzel, K Kizilova, J Diez-Medrano, M Lagos, P Norris, E Ponarin, B Puranen et al. (eds.). 2014. World values survey: all rounds—country-pooled datafile 1981–2014. Madrid: JD Systems Institute. Version: http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSDocumentationWVL.jsp.

  2. 2.

    “Russia Longitudinal Monitoring survey, RLMS-HSE”, conducted by National Research University “Higher School of Economics” and OOO “Demoscope” together with Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the Institute of Sociology of the Federal Center of Theoretical and Applied Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences. (RLMS-HSE web sites: http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/rlms-hse, http://www.hse.ru/org/hse/rlms).

  3. 3.

    Life-course gender gap. United Nations Development Programme. Available on-line at: http://hdr.undp.org/en/composite/Dashboard2. The life-course gender gap is assessed with the help of the following sub-indexes: sex ratio at birth, gross enrolment ratio, youth unemployment rate, population with at least some secondary education, total unemployment rate, share of employment in non-agriculture, share of seats in parliament, time spent on unpaid domestic chores and care work, old-age pension recipients.

  4. 4.

    Russian Public Opinion Research Centre (VCIOM). (2019, July 8). Views of marriage and divorce [Press release 2194]. Retrieved from https://wciom.com/index.php?id=61&uid=1687.

  5. 5.

    Russian Census (2020, February 14) Davai pozhenimsya: pochemu brakov stalo bol’she, a razvodov menshe [Let’s get married: why there is more marriages and less divorces] [Press release]. Retrieved from https://www.strana2020.ru/media-office/davay-pozhenimsya-pochemu-brakov-stalo-bolshe-a-razvodov-menshe/.

  6. 6.

    Russian Public Opinion Research Centre (VCIOM). (2019, June 8). Views of marriage and divorce [Press release 2194]. Retrieved from https://wciom.com/index.php?id=61&ui=1687.

  7. 7.

    Rosstat. Selective monitoring of population reproductive plans in 2017 [Statistic tables]. Retrieved from http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/RPN17/reports.html.

  8. 8.

    Russian Public Opinion Research Centre (VCIOM). (2019, June 8). Views of marriage and divorce [Press release 2194]. Retrieved from https://wciom.com/index.php?id=61&uid=1687.

  9. 9.

    Federal Statistical Service (Rosstat). Selective monitoring of population reproductive plans in 2017 [Statistic tables]. Retrieved from http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/RPN17/reports.html.

  10. 10.

    Russian Public Opinion Research Centre (VCIOM). (2015, February 10). Marriage, children, marriage betrayals: now and 25 years ago [Press release 2771]. Retrieved from https://wciom.ru/index.php?id=236&uid=609.

  11. 11.

    Russian Public Opinion Research Centre (VCIOM). (2019, June 8). Views of marriage and divorce [Press release 2194]. Retrieved from https://wciom.com/index.php?id=61&uid=1687.

  12. 12.

    Federal Statistical Service (Rosstat). Selective monitoring of population reproductive plans in 2017 [Statistic tables]. Retrieved from http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/RPN17/reports.html.

  13. 13.

    Ibid.

  14. 14.

    Vychnevsky, A (Ed.) (2002). The 9th annual demographic report ‘Population of Russia’. Institute of economic forecasting of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Retrieved from http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/knigi/ns_r01/sod_r.html.

  15. 15.

    Russian Public Opinion Research Centre (VCIOM). (2015, April 3). Marriage in Russia: yesterday and today [Press release 2807]. Retrieved from https://wciom.ru/index.php?id=236&uid=115214.

  16. 16.

    Federal Statistical Service (Rosstat). Selective monitoring of population reproductive plans in 2017 [Statistic tables]. Retrieved from http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/RPN17/reports.html.

  17. 17.

    When interpreting figures for the whole Soviet Union, one should keep in mind significant regional (Republican) heterogeneity.

  18. 18.

    Institute of economic forecasting of the Russian Academy of Sciences. (2006, July). Informational bulletin ‘Population and society’, 100 [Press release]. Retrieved from http://www.demoscope.ru/acrobat/ps100.pdf.

  19. 19.

    Patriarchal family model—apart from the traditional division of obligations/roles between which also often implies several generations living together in one household.

  20. 20.

    According to the Rosstat, from 1990 to 2004, the difference between the number of births per 1000 of population diminished from 2.7 to 1.0 (becoming 10.2 and 11.2 promille, respectively).

  21. 21.

    At the moment of writing, first six waves were available, covering period form 1990 to 2011 for Russia. Wave 7 was announced to be added to the online accessible dataset in July 2020. For more information, see http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/.

  22. 22.

    It should be noted, that even if the desired number of children reflects social context, it is still a personal norm which can change over life as a reaction to change of socio-economic status, or characteristics of a reference group (Kuhnt et al. 2017; Puur et al. 2018).

  23. 23.

    OECD Family database. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/els/family/database.htm.

  24. 24.

    Institute of Sociology of the Federal Center of Theoretical and Applied Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences. (2007) Youth of the new Russia: way of living and priorities. [Analytical report]. Retrieved from: https://www.isras.ru/analytical_report_Youth.html.

  25. 25.

    Russian Public Opinion Research Centre (VCIOM). (2018, July 17). Flowers of life, or how many children are needed for happiness? [Press release 3717]. Retrieved from https://wciom.ru/index.php?id=236&uid=9212.

  26. 26.

    This can be seen as one of the variations of the weak male-breadwinner model that implies that both men and women work at full-time jobs, while women also bear main responsibility for housekeeping and childcare. (Deloach and Hoffman 2002).

  27. 27.

    World Value Survey, Russia, 1990, 1995, 2006, 2001; the authors’ estimates.

  28. 28.

    Labor and employment in Russia. (2011). Federal State Statistic Service. Main indicators of the labour market of the Russian Federation [Statistical tables]. Retrieved from https://www.gks.ru/bgd/regl/b11_36/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d1/01-01.htm.

  29. 29.

    RLMS-HSE, 2003, the authors’ estimate.

  30. 30.

    RLMS-HSE, 2000, the authors’ estimate.

  31. 31.

    Ibid.

  32. 32.

    WVS, 1995, the author’s estimate.

  33. 33.

    Agreement with the statement `Husband and wife should both contribute to income’. World Value Survey: 73.1% of men and 78.1% of women (1990), 81.0% of men and 88.3% of women (1995). Russian Longitudinal Monitoring Survey: 68.2% of men and 82.5% of women (2003).

  34. 34.

    Russian Public Opinion Research Centre (VCIOM). (2019, November 26). Leadership: gender stereotypes are receding [Press release 2229]. Retrieved from https://wciom.com/index.php?id=61&uid=1726.

  35. 35.

    United Nations Statistics Division. (2018, August). Data use portal. Retrieved from https://unstats.un.org/unsd/gender/timeuse/.

  36. 36.

    Russian Public Opinion Research Centre (VCIOM). (2019, November 26). Leadership: gender stereotypes are receding [Press release 2229]. Retrieved from https://wciom.com/index.php?id=61&uid=1726.

  37. 37.

    Foundation `Public Opinion’ (FOM) (2014, January 28). Family and children. How do Russian take decisions about birth of a child? With whom the child should stay after divorce? [Press release]. Retrieved from https://fom.ru/Rabota-i-dom/11315.

  38. 38.

    Russian Public Opinion Research Centre (VCIOM). (2019, November 26). Leadership: gender stereotypes are receding [Press release 2229]. Retrieved from https://wciom.com/index.php?id=61&uid=1726.

  39. 39.

    Russian Public Opinion Research Centre (VCIOM). (2019, September 19). Daddy can do anything? [Press release 3986]. Retrieved from https://wciom.ru/index.php?id=236&uid=9759.

  40. 40.

    Russian News Agency TASS. (2019, March 6). Paternity leave was taken by more than 13.7 thousands of men in the pilot regions of the program by the Social Security Fund. Retrieved from https://tass.ru/obschestvo/6190434.

  41. 41.

    Russian Public Opinion Research Centre (VCIOM). (2019, September 19). Daddy can do anything? [Press release 3986]. Retrieved from https://wciom.ru/index.php?id=236&uid=9759.

  42. 42.

    Ibid..

  43. 43.

    Russian Public Opinion Research Centre (VCIOM). (2015, April 3). Marriage in Russia: yesterday and today [Press release 2807]. Retrieved from https://wciom.ru/index.php?id=236&uid=115214.

  44. 44.

    Russian Public Opinion Research Centre (VCIOM). (2019, September 19). Daddy can do anything? [Press release 3986]. Retrieved from https://wciom.ru/index.php?id=236&uid=9759.

  45. 45.

    Russian Public Opinion Research Centre (VCIOM). (2019, October 23). ‘Invovled parenthood’, or what children prize above money [Press release 2220]. Retrieved from https://wciom.com/index.php?id=61&uid=1717.

  46. 46.

    Russian Public Opinion Research Centre (VCIOM). (2020, June 19). Fathers of our times [Press release 4264]. Retrieved from https://wciom.ru/index.php?id=236&uid=10333.

  47. 47.

    Russian Public Opinion Research Centre (VCIOM). (2019, September 19). Daddy can do anything? [Press release 3986]. Retrieved from https://wciom.ru/index.php?id=236&uid=9759.

  48. 48.

    Russian Public Opinion Research Centre (VCIOM). (2020, June 19). Fathers of our times [Press release 4264]. Retrieved from https://wciom.ru/index.php?id=236&uid=10333.

  49. 49.

    RLMS-HSE, 2003, the author’s estimate.

  50. 50.

    Russian Public Opinion Research Centre (VCIOM). (2019, November 26). Leadership: gender stereotypes are receding [Press release 2229]. Retrieved from https://wciom.com/index.php?id=61&uid=1726.

  51. 51.

    Ibid.

  52. 52.

    Ibid.

  53. 53.

    Ekaterina Furtseva was born in 1910 to working-class parents. Her impressive political career starts with the Komsomol as a raion committee secretary in the early 1930s, and soon shifts to the All-Union level. Along with her tertiary education studies,in Moscow, Ms Furtseva grew from the head of propaganda department in the Moscow city soviet to the first secretary of the Moscow’s Party organization. In 1957, with the support from Nikita Khrushev, she became the first woman ever joining Politburo (see Ciboski 1972 for more biographic details).

  54. 54.

    Russian News Agency TASS. (2011, November 30). The history of elections to the State Duma in the modern Russia. Retrieved from https://tass.ru/spravochnaya-informaciya/508433.

  55. 55.

    The World Bank (2020). Proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments (%)—Russian Federation. Retrieved from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SG.GEN.PARL.ZS?locationsRU&name_desc=false.

  56. 56.

    RLMS-HSE, 2003, the author’s estimate.

  57. 57.

    WVS, 2011, author’s estimate.

  58. 58.

    Foundation ‘Public Opinion’ (FOM) (2011, July 13). Women in the Russian [political] seats [Press release]. Retrieved from http://fom.ru/Politika/10095.

  59. 59.

    Foundation ‘Public Opinion’ (FOM) (2014, March 07). Women in politics: Pros and contra. What Russian think about the fair sex participation in politics [Press release]. Retrieved from http://fom.ru/Politika/11369.

  60. 60.

    Russian Public Opinion Research Centre (VCIOM). (2019, September 16). Women in politics: Russian version [Press release 2212]. Retrieved from https://wciom.com/index.php?id=61&uid=1706.

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Acknowledgements

Ekaterina Skoglund thanks to all the staff and participants of the research seminars during her visiting research stay at the IER Hitotsubashi University in 2015 when the idea for the Chapter 1 was conceived. The financial and administrative support making this stay possible is also gratefully acknowledged.

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  1. Department of Economics, Leibniz Institute for East and Southeast European Studies, Regensburg, Bayern, Germany

    Ekaterina Skoglund

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  1. Department of Government and Society, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates

    Tatiana Karabchuk

  2. Institute of Economic Research, Hitotsubashi University, Kunitachi, Japan

    Kazuhiro Kumo

  3. Department of Economics, Leibniz Institute for East and Southeast European Studies, Regensburg, Bayern, Germany

    Kseniia Gatskova

  4. Department of Economics, Leibniz Institute for East and Southeast European Studies, Regensburg, Bayern, Germany

    Ekaterina Skoglund

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Skoglund, E. (2021). Evolution of Gender Role Attitudes and Gender Equality in Russia. In: Karabchuk, T., Kumo, K., Gatskova, K., Skoglund, E. (eds) Gendering Post-Soviet Space. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9358-1_1

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