Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Summary of Secondary Hypertension

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Secondary Hypertension

Abstract

Hypertension can be classified into essential hypertension and secondary hypertension based on the etiology whether it is clear or not. Previously, we think that the proportion of secondary hypertension was much lower than essential hypertension. However, with the deep understanding of the etiology of hypertension and the improvement of clinical diagnostic techniques, the proportion of secondary hypertension has far exceeded expectation. For example, Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome (OSAS) is the most common type of secondary hypertension, which may account for more than 30% of adults hypertension, and primary aldosteronism accounts for more than 10%. In addition to cardiovascular damage caused by hypertension itself, secondary hypertension can also lead to cardiovascular damage independent of hypertension, which is more harmful than primary hypertension, such as hypokalemia, hyperrenin, hyperaldosterone, hypercortisol, hypercatecholamine, and hypoxia [1–11]. Early detection and treatment of secondary hypertension is of important clinical significance.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Li N, Cheng W, Yanzhitao, et al. Investigation and analysis of target organ damage in sleep apnea-related hypertension. Chin J Hypertens. 2011;19(7):642–6.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Pedrosa RP, Drager LF, Gonzaga CC, et al. Obstructive sleep apnea: the most common secondary cause of hypertension associated with resistant hypertension. Hypertension. 2011;58:811–7. PMID: 21968750 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Yan Z, Cheng W, Bi Y. Effects of obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea syndrome on the left ventricular structures and systolic function in hypertensive patients. Chin J Hypertens. 2011;19(3):273–7.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Bruno RM, Rossi L, Fabbrini M, et al. Renal vasodilating capacity and endothelial function are impaired in patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome and no traditional cardiovascular risk factors. J Hypertens. 2013;31:1456–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Li N, Li H, Wang H, et al. Characteristics of left ventricular structural damage in patients with primary aldosteronism. Chin J Endocrinol Metab. 2012;28(2):117–20.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Hong W, Gong Y, Chu S, et al. Left ventricular hypertrophy in patients with primary aldosteronism. Chin J Hypertens. 2008;2:112–6.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Li N, Ma X, Wang H, et al. Proteinuria in patients with primary aldosteronism. Chin J Hypertens. 2013;21(3):249–52.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Zeng J, Li N, Wang X, et al. Risk factors of decreased glomerular filtration rate in patients with primary aldosteronism. Chin J Gen Pract. 2012;11(2):141–5.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Li N, Li H, Wang H, et al. Clinical analysis of 330 patients with primary aldosteronism. Chin J Endocrinol Metab. 2011;27(9):752–4.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Lopez-Vargas PA, Tong A, Sureshkumar P, et al. Prevention, detection and management of early chronic kidney disease: a systematic review of clinical practice guidelines. Nephrology (Carlton). 2013;18(9):592–604. PMID: 23815515 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Sun N, Huo Y, Wang J, et al. Chinese experts’ consensus on diagnosis and treatment of refractory hypertension. Chin J Hypertens. 2013;04:321–6.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Danielson M, Dammstrom B. The prevalence of secondary and curable hypertension. Acta Med Scand. 1981;209:451–5. PMID: 7257863 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Anderson GH Jr, Blakeman N, Streeten DH. The effect of age on prevalence of secondary forms of hypertension in 4429 consecutively referred patients. J Hypertens. 1994;12:609–15. PMID: 7930562 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Omura M, Saito J, Yamaguchi K, et al. Prospective study on the prevalence of secondary hypertension among hypertensive patients visiting a general outpatient clinic in Japan. Hypertens Res. 2004;27:193–202. PMID: 15080378 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Wang Z, Chu S, Chen S, et al. Analysis of etiology and risk factors of in-patients with hypertension. Chin J Hypertens. 2005;13(5):405–9.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Li N, Wang L, Zhou K, et al. Analysis of etiology of the patients with hypertension from the People’s hospital of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Chin J Cardiol. 2007;35(9):865–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Li N, Lin L, Wang L, et al. Etiology analysis for hospitalized hypertensive patients: 10 years report from the department of hypertension (1999-200). Chin J Cardiol. 2010;38(10):939–42.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Karagiannis A, Douma S, Voyiatzis K, et al. Percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty in patients with renovascular hypertension: long-term results. Hypertens Res. 1995;18:27–31. PMID: 7584906 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Mancia G, De Backer G, Dominiczak A, et al. The task force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension, The task force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Cardiology. 2007 Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: the Task Force for the Management of Arterial Hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J. 2007;28:1462–536. PMID: 17562668 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Hirsch AT, Haskal ZJ, Hertzer NR, et al. ACC/AHA 2005 Practice guidelines for the management of patients with peripheral arterial disease (lower extremity, renal, mesenteric, and abdominal aortic): a collaborative report from the American Association for Vascular Surgery/Society for Vascular Surgery; Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions; Society for Vascular Medicine and Biology; Society of Interventional Radiology; ACC/AHA Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Develop Guidelines for the Management of Patients with Peripheral Arterial Disease); endorsed by the American Association of Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Rehabilitation; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; Society for Vascular Nursing; Trans Atlantic Inter-Society Consensus; Vascular Disease Foundation. Circulation. 2006;113(11):1474–547. PMID: 16549646 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Preston RA, Epstein M. Ischemic renal disease: an emerging cause of chronic renal failure and end-stage renal disease. J Hypertens. 1997;15:1365–77. PMID: 9431840 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Karagiannis A, Tziomalos K, Anagnostis P, et al. Atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis: medical therapy alone or in combination with revascularization? Angiology. 2009;60:397–402. PMID: 19505885[PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Sjostrom C, Lindberg E, Elmasry A, et al. Prevalence of sleep apnea and snoring in hypertensive men: a population based study. Thorax. 2002;57:602–7. PMID: 12096203[PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Drager LF, Genta PR, Pedrosa RP, et al. Characteristics and predictors of obstructive sleep apnea in patients with systemic hypertension. Am J Cardiol. 2010;105:1135–9. PMID: 20381666 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Goncalves SC, Martinez D, Gus M, et al. Obstructive sleep apnea and resistant hypertension: a case-control study. Chest. 2007;132:1858–62. PMID: 21968750 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Logan AG, Perlikowski SM, Mente A, et al. High prevalence of unrecognized sleep apnea in drug-resistant hypertension. J Hypertens. 2001;19:2271–7. PMID: 11725173 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Wang Y, Li N, Wang X, et al. Study on characteristic and prevalence of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in the patients with hypertension and snoring. Chin J Clin (Electronic Edition). 2011;5(12):3482–5.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Li N, Zhang L, Yan Z, et al. Impact of body mass index on incidence of obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome in hospitalized hypertensive patients. Chin J Cardiol. 2012;40(2):120–4.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Yan Z, Zhang L, Li N, et al. Prevalence of obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome in hypertensive clinic patient. Chin J Hypertens. 2012;20(3):272–6.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Hiramatsu K, Yamada T, Yukimura Y, et al. A screening test to identify aldosterone-producing adenoma by measuring plasma renin activity. Results in hypertensive patients. Arch Intern Med. 1981;141:1589–93. PMID: 7030245 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Fagugli RM, Taglloni C. Changes in the perceived epidemiology of primary hyperaldosteronism. Int J Hypertens. 2011;12:162–5. PMID: 21837271 [PubMed].

    Google Scholar 

  32. Moss L, Carvajal C, Gonzalez A, et al. Primary aldosteronism and hypertensive disease. Hypertension. 2003;42:161–5. PMID: 12796282 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Stowasser M, Taylor PJ, Pimenta E, et al. Laboratory investigation of primary aldosteronism. Clin Biochem Rev. 2010;31:39–56. PMID: 20498828 [PubMed] PMCID: PMC2874431.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Piaditis G, Markou A, Papanastasiou L, et al. Progress in aldosteronism: a review of the prevalence of primary aldosteronism in pre-hypertension and hypertension. Eur J Endocrinol. 2015;17:191–203. PMID: 25538205 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Zhang F, Li N, Yan Z, et al. The study of screening rates of primary aldosteronism in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome with hypertension as the blood pressure classification. J Clin Cardiol. 2010;10(5):730–3.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Zhang F, Hu D, Yang J, et al. Prevalence and risk factors of anxiety and depression in hypertensive patients. J Capital Univ Med Sci. 2005;26(2):140–2.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Wei T, Zeng C, Chen LP, et al. Anxiety or/and depression in patients with hypertension. Chin J Hypertens. 2003;11(6):567–9.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Han J, Yin X, Xu F, et al. A case-control study on depression and anxiety of hypertension population in Pukou District of Nanjing City. Chin J Epidemiol. 2008;29(6):125–7.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Carroll D, Phillips AC, Gale CR, et al. Generalized anxiety and major depressive disorders, their comorbidity and hypertension in middle-aged men. Psychosom Med. 2010;72:16–9. PMID: 19933507 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Liao J, Wang X, Liu C, et al. Prevalence and related risk factors of hypertensive patients with co-morbid anxiety and/or depression in community: a cross-sectional study. Natl Med J China. 2014;94(1):62–6.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Rimoldi SF, Scherrer U, Messerli FH. Secondary arterial hypertension: when, who, and how to screen? Eur Heart J. 2014;35:1245–7. PMID: 24366917 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Magiakou MA, Smyrnaki P, Chrousos GP. Hypertension in Cushing’s syndrome. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;20:467–82. PMID: 16980206 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Tauchmanovà L, Rossi R, Biondi B, et al. Patients with subclinical Cushing’s syndrome due to adrenal adenoma have increased cardiovascular risk. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87:4872–8. PMID: 12414841 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Erbil Y, Ademolu E, Ozbey N, et al. Evaluation of the cardiovascular risk in patients with subclinical Cushing syndrome before and after surgery. World J Surg. 2006;30:1665–71. PMID: 16927063 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Klein I, Danzi S. Thyroid disease and the heart. Circulation. 2007;116:1725–35. PMID: 17923583 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Wan X, Lu X. Diagnostics. 4th ed. Beijing: People’s Medical Publishing House; 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Li N. Secondary hypertension. 1st ed. Beijing: People’s Medical Publishing House; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Li N, Wang L. Secondary hypertension clues come from basic clinical examinations. Med Philos. 2011;32(7):8–10.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Kong J, Li N, Zu F, et al. Clinical study of 22 cases with hypercortisolism. Chin J Cardiovasc Rehabil Med. 2014;23(1):64–7.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Wang J, Li N, Wang X, et al. Analysis of correlation between hematocrit and hypoxemia in patients with essential hypertension complicated with OSAS. Xinjiang Medical Journal. 2006;36(1):86–7.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Campese VM, Mitra N, Sandee D. Hypertension in renal parenchymal disease: why is it so resistant to treatment? Kidney Int. 2006;69(6):967–73. PMID: 16528245 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Kota SK, Kota SK, Panda S, et al. A case of Liddle’s syndrome; unusual presentation with hypertensive encephalopathy. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl. 2014;25(4):869–71. PMID: 24969204 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Ronzaud C, Loffing-Cueni D, Hausel P, et al. Renal tubular NEDD4-2 deficiency causes NCC-mediated salt-dependent hypertension. J Clin Invest. 2013;123(2):657–65. PMID: 23348737 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE] PMCID: PMC3561795.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Boucek P. Diabetic nephropathy/diabetic kidney disease. Vnitr Lek. 2013;59(3):201–3. PMID: 23713188 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Cannon PJ, Ames RP, Laragh JH. Relation between potassium balance and aldosterone secretion in normal subjects and in patients with hypertensive or renal tubular disease. J Clin Invest. 1966;45(6):865–79. PMID: 5913296 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE] PMCID: PMC292766.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  56. Wang H. Nephrology. 3rd ed. Beijing: People’s Medical Publishing House; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Krause T, Lovibond K, Cauldield M, et al. Guideline development group. Management of hypertension: summary of NICE guidance. BMJ. 2011;343:d4891.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Wang J. 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure monitoring: applicable population and clinical significance. Chin J Hypertens. 2014;22(7):614–5.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Li L, Yepeng. Comparison of home blood pressure and ambulatory blood pressure monitoring in diagnosis of intractable hypertension and true intractable hypertension. Chin J Hypertens. 2013;02:111.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Li N, Wang M. Cause analysis and treatment of refractory hypertension. Prev Treat Cardiovasc Cerebrovasc Dis. 2013;13(5):346–51.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Li N, Xing W, Jiang W, et al. The relationship between blood pressure level and blood pressure rhythm in different postures. Chin J Hypertens. 2013;21(2):175–7.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Lenders JW, Duh QY, Eisenhofer G, et al. Pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014;99(6):1915–42. PMID: 24893135 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Luo Q, Li NF, Yao XG, et al. Potential effects of age on screening for primary aldosteronism. J Hum Hypertens. 2016;30(1):53–61. PMID: 25880592 [PubMed—in process].

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Funder JW, Carey RM, Fardella C, et al. Case detection, diagnosis, and treatment of patients with primary aldosteronism: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93(9):3266–81. PMID: 18552288 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Society of Endocrinology, Chinese Medical Association. Expert consensus on Cushing’s syndrome. Chin J Endocrinol Metab. 2012;28(2):22–4.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Wang Q, Liu DW. Application of catecholamine in diagnosis and treatment of hypertensive diseases. Lab Med Clin. 2007;4(11):1058–9.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Velasco A, Vongpatanasin W. The evaluation and treatment of endocrine forms of hypertension. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2014;16(9):528. PMID: 25119722 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Expert consensus on clinical diagnosis and treatment of obstructive sleep apnea-related hypertension. Chin J Respir Crit Care Med. 2013;12(5):435–41.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Li P, Qin YW. Diagnosis and treatment of renovascular hypertension. Int J Cardiovasc Dis. 2009;5:284–8.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Textor SC. Secondary hypertension: renovascular hypertension. J Am Soc Hypertens. 2014;8(12):943–5. PMID: 25492839 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Parikh SA, Shishehbor MH, Gray BH, et al. SCAI expert consensus Statement for renal artery stenting appropriate use. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 2014;84(7):1163–71. PMID: 25138644 [PubMed—indexed for MEDLINE].

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Cai A, Calhoun DA. Resistant hypertension: an update of experimental and clinical findings. Hypertension. 2017;70(1):5–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Judd E, Calhoun DA. Apparent and true resistant hypertension: definition, prevalence and outcomes. J Hum Hypertens. 2014;28(8):463–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  74. Calhoun DA, Jones D, Textor S, et al. Resistant hypertension: diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Professional Education Committee of the Council for High Blood Pressure Research. Circulation. 2008;117(25):510–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Liu L-s. Guidelines for hypertension prevention and treatment in China 2010. Chin J Med Front (Electronic Edition). 2011;3(5):42–93.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Mancia G, Fagard R, Narkiewicz K, et al. 2013 ESH/ESC practice guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. Blood Press. 2014;25(9):3–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. Denolle T, Chamontin B, Doll G, et al. [Management of resistant hypertension. Expert consensus statement from the French Society of Hypertension, an affiliate of the French Society of Cardiology]. Press Méd. 2014;43(1):1325–31.

    Google Scholar 

  78. Leung AA, Nerenberg K, Daskalopoulou SS, et al. Hypertension Canada’s 2016 Canadian hypertension education program guidelines for blood pressure measurement, diagnosis, assessment of risk, prevention, and treatment of hypertension. Can J Cardiol. 2016;32(5):589–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Cifu AS, Davis AM. Prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure in adults. JAMA. 2017;318(21):2132.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Whelton PK, Carey RM, Aronow WS, et al. 2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure in adults. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017;71(19):213–21.

    Google Scholar 

  81. A Scientific Statement from the American Heart Association. Resistant hypertension: detection, evaluation, and management. Hypertension. 2018;72:e53–90. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYP.0000000000000084.

  82. Kleman M, Dhanyamraju S, Difilippo W. Prevalence and characteristics of pseudohypertension in patients with “resistant hypertension”. J Am Soc Hypertens. 2013;7(6):467–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Bhatt H, Siddiqui M, Judd E, et al. Prevalence of pseudoresistant hypertension due to inaccurate blood pressure measurement. J Am Soc Hypertens. 2016;10(6):493–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. de Oliveira-Filho AD, Costa FA, Neves SJ, et al. Pseudoresistant hypertension due to poor medication adherence. Int J Cardiol. 2014;172(2):e309–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Wang L, Li N, Zhou K, et al. Etiological analysis of uncontrollable hypertension in 628 patients. Chin J Cardiol. 2009;37(2):138–41.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Zakka K, Bitar M, Lakkis B, et al. Induced vomiting for attention seeking and secondary gain: an unusual cause of pseudo-resistant hypertension. JRSM Open. 2017;8(8):205427041771766.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Hyman DJ, Pavlik V. Medication adherence and resistant hypertension. J Hum Hypertens. 2015;29(4):213–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Kline GA, Aph P, Leung AA, et al. Primary aldosteronism: a common cause of resistant hypertension. CMAJ. 2017;189(22):E773.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  89. Faselis C, Doumas M, Papademetriou V. Common secondary causes of resistant hypertension and rational for treatment. Int J Hypertens. 2011;2011(3):236–9.

    Google Scholar 

  90. Hall WD. Resistant hypertension, secondary hypertension, and hypertensive crises. Cardiol Clin. 2002;20(2):281–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Li n-f, meng-hui w. Cause analysis and treatment of refractory hypertension. Prev Treat Cardiovasc Cerebrovasc Dis. 2013;13(5):346–51.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Li N, Zhang D. Refractory hypertension and its drug therapy. Chin J Pract Intern Med. 2015;35(4):303–5.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Volpe M, Tocci G. Challenging hypertension: how to diagnose and treat resistant hypertension in daily clinical practice. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther. 2010;8(6):811.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Sun NL, Huo Y, Wang JG, et al. Consensus of Chinese specialists on diagnosis and treatment of resistant hypertension. Chin Med J (Engl). 2015;128(15):2102–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  95. Denker MG, Haddad DB, Townsend RR, et al. Blood pressure control 1 year after referral to a hypertension specialist. J Clin Hypertens. 2013;15(9):624–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  96. Maskon O, Shah AM, Adnan AS, et al. Superior blood pressure control among hypertensive patients attending Specialist clinics in Malaysia. Int J Cardiol. 2009;137:S12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  97. Wu Z-s, Zhu D-l, Jiang X-j, et al. Stance and recommendations of Chinese hypertension federation on percutaneous radiofrequency catheter ablation for the treatment of refractory hypertension. Chin J Hypertens. 2013;5(5):51–6.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. The Center of Hypertension of People’s Hospital of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China

    Nanfang Li, Menghui Wang & Mei Cao

Authors
  1. Nanfang Li
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Menghui Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Mei Cao
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. The Center of Hypertension of People’s Hospital of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China

    Nanfang Li

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Li, N., Wang, M., Cao, M. (2020). Summary of Secondary Hypertension. In: Li, N. (eds) Secondary Hypertension. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-0591-1_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-0591-1_1

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore

  • Print ISBN: 978-981-15-0590-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-981-15-0591-1

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation