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“Rule of Law” Under the Chinese Communist Party’s Leadership: The Case of the Professionalization of Judges and the CCP’s Governance of the People’s Court

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State Capacity Building in Contemporary China

Part of the book series: Emerging-Economy State and International Policy Studies ((EESIPS))

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Abstract

Promoting the “Rule of Law” is one of the important issues in examining the resilience of the CCP’s leadership. The People’s Court became one of the most important governmental bodies after the CCP considered installing the “Rule of Law,” and the problem of professionalizing judges to ensure fair judgement in the court system became a main reason to discuss the “Rule of Law” in Chinese context. This chapter applies process tracing to visualize the law-making and revision process of the Judges Law and applies the framework of street-level bureaucracy to examine the reality of the professionalization of judges. This chapter reveals that the CCP’s motive behind professionalization is the unification of the judge’s quality and thier integration with the CCP, as the CCP is the most highly-educated organization, with a meritocratic political system. However, the CCP’s promotion of legal professionalization controversially revealed the conservative behavior of judges and the local people’s court. They preferred to maintain the status quo when the CCP’s policy or the law tried to change the profit structure in which they participated.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    法治 (fazhi) in Chinese can be translated in two ways, such as Rule of Law or Rule by Law. Rule of Law means that individuals and organizations are equal under the law. Instead, Rule by Law means the political leader uses the law to govern the state and society. Therefore, Rule by Law is usually used for interpreting a legal system in an authoritarian regime, and Rule of Law shows it is a constitutional democracy. However, the reality cannot be clearly divided into two categories. Therefore, according to the understanding of the meaning of Rule of Law and Rule by Law, this paper uses “Rule of Law” with quotations as the authoritarian rule of law that the CCP promotes.

  2. 2.

    The CCP usually sets “Party Construction” as the main topic at the 4th Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. Assigning “Rule of Law” as the main theme of discussion is an exception. Kadozaki (2015), 78–88; Amako (2015).

  3. 3.

    “CPC to set up central leading group for advancing law-based governance in all areas,” Xinhua Net, 18 October 2017. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/19thcpcnationalcongress/2017-10/18/content_33404113.htm.

  4. 4.

    “Constitution of the People’s Republic of China,” March 14, 2004, The National People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of China, http://www.npc.gov.cn/englishnpc/Constitution/2007-11/15/content_1372963.htm.

  5. 5.

    “China’s Chief Justice Rejects an Independent Judiciary, and Reformers Wince,” The New York Times, January 18th, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/18/world/asia/china-chief-justice-courts-zhou-qiang.html.

  6. 6.

    “Constitution of the PRC (2018 Amendment),” Beijing University Law Net, http://en.pkulaw.cn/display.aspx?cgid=311950&lib=law.

  7. 7.

    “Organic Law of the People’s Courts of the PRC (2018 Amendment),” Chinese Government Net, http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2018-10/27/content_5334895.htm.

  8. 8.

    Mabuchi uses the judges and the judicial bureaucracy (Shiho Kanryo: 司法官僚) as an example to explain the bureaucratic system in Japan. Mabuchi (2010).

  9. 9.

    Ren Jianxin, “Fully Developing the Function of The Judicial Institution and Promoting ‘One Central Task and Two Basic Points’” (July 18, 1988), in Ren (2005), 206.

  10. 10.

    Ren Jianxin, “Senior Judge Must Be a Legal Profession, Also Be a Politician” (27 July 1988), in Ren (2005), 215.

  11. 11.

    Ren Jianxin, “Explanation about the Draft of the Judges Law—7th Meeting of the 8th Standing Committee of NPC,” in Gazeta of the Standing Committee of National People’s Congress in People’s Republic of China (Vol. 1, 1995), 71 (in Chinese, 任建新 (1995) 〈关于 《中华人民共和国法官法(草案) 的说明 - 1994年5月5日在第八届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第七次会议上〉 《中华人民共和国全国人民代表大会常务委员会公报》 1: 71).

  12. 12.

    Ren Jianxin, Ibid., 72.

  13. 13.

    Wang Shuwen, “National People’s Congress Law Committee Reported the Conclusion of the Discussion About the Judges Law (draft) and the Prosecutors Law (draft)—11th Meeting of the 8th Standing Committee of NPC on December 21, 1994,” in Gazeta of the Standing Committee of National People’s Congress in People’s Republic of China (Vol. 1, 1995), 75–76 (in Chinese, 王叔文 (1995) 〈全国人大法律委员会关于法官法(草案)和检察官法(草案)审议结果的报告 - 1994年12月21日在第八届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第十一次会议上〉 《中华人民共和国全国人民代表大会常务委员会公报》 1: 75–76).

  14. 14.

    The Judges Law of PRC, Year Book of the Open and Reform in New Era in China, (Beijing: China Democratic Legal Press, 1996), 149–151 (in Chinese, (1996) 〈中华人民共和国法官法〉 《中国改革开放新时期年鉴》 北京: 中国民主法制出版社、149–151).

  15. 15.

    Ren Jianxin, “Fully Strengthening the Court Works for Reform, Development and Stable Service—Significant Speech about Arrangement and Works in the People’s Court,” in People’s Justice, Vol. 7, 1995, 2 (in Chinese, 任建新 (1995) 〈全面加强审判工作为改革、发展、稳定服务 - 任建新就法院工作部署作重要讲话〉 《人民司法》 7: 2).

  16. 16.

    Xiaoyang Qiao , “Law Committee of NPC’s Report of Discussion Result of the Revised Judges Law (Draft)—22nd Meeting of the 9th Standing Committee of NPC on June 26, 2001,” in Gazeta of the Standing Committee of National People’s Congress in People’s Republic of China (May 2011), 396–398 (in Chinese, 乔晓阳 (2001) 〈全国人大法律委员会关于 《法官法修正案 (草案) 》 审议结果的报告 - 2001年6月26日在第九届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第二十二次会议上〉 《中华人民共和国全国人民代表大会常务委员会公报》 396–398).

  17. 17.

    “Law Committee of NPC’s Writing Report of the Opinions for Revising the Revised Judges Law (Draft) and the Revised Prosecutors Law (Draft)—22nd Meeting of the 9th Standing Committee of NPC on June 30, 2001,” in Gazeta of the Standing Committee of National People’s Congress in People’s Republic of China (May 2011), 398–399 (in Chinese,  (2001) 〈全国人大法律委员会关于修改法官法的决定 (草案) 和修改检察官法的决定 (草案) 修改意见的书面报告 - 2001年6月30日在第九届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第二十二次会议上〉 《中华人民共和国全国人民代表大会常务委员会公报》 398–399).

  18. 18.

    Xiao Yang explained that the qualification examination for judges is necessary to provide the mechanism to select a judge scientifically, but did not mention the idea of the unification of the legal examination. “The Draft of the Revised Judges Law Sets Up the Requirements for Being a Judge Step by Step,” Xinhua Daily, July 4, 2000 (in Chinese, (2000) 〈法官法修改案草案进一步完善担任法官的任职条件〉 《新华每日》).

  19. 19.

    Xiaoyang Qiao, “Law Committee of NPC’s Report of the Situation of the Revised Judges Law (Draft)—21st Meeting of the 9th Standing Committee of NPC on April 24, 2001,” in Gazeta of the Standing Committee of National People’s Congress in People’s Republic of China (May 2011), 395–396 (in Chinese, 乔晓阳 (2001) 〈全国人大法律委员会关于 《中华人民共和国法官法修正案 (草案) 》修改情况的汇报 - 2001年4月24日在第九届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第二十一会议上〉 《中华人民共和国全国人民代表大会常务委员会公报》 5: 395–396).

  20. 20.

    Xi Jinping, “Explanation of ‘the Decision of the CPC Central Committee on Major Issues Pertaining to Comprehensively Promoting the Rule of Law,” in Documents of the Fourth Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2014), 68 (in Chinese, 习近平〈关于 《中共中央关于全面推进依法治国若干重大问题的决定》的说明〉 (2014) 《中国共产党第十八届中央委员会第四次全体会议文件汇编》 北京: 人民出版社).

  21. 21.

    “The Decision of the CPC Central Committee on Major Issues Pertaining to Comprehensively Promoting the Rule of Law,” CPC News, http://cpc.people.com.cn/n/2014/1029/c64387-25927606-3.html (in Chinese, 〈中共中央关于全面推进依法治国若干重大问题的决定〉 《中国共产党新闻网》 (2014年10月29日)).

  22. 22.

    “The Opinion about the Advancing the Reform of the People’s Court in All Areas,” China Court Net, https://www.chinacourt.org/law/detail/2015/02/id/148096.shtml  (in Chinese, 最高人民法院 (2015) 〈最高人民法院关于全面深化人民法院改革的意见 - 人民法院第四个五年改革纲要〉 《中国法院网》 (2015年2月4日)).

  23. 23.

    Zhou Qiang, “Explanation about the Judges Law of the People’s Republic of China(Draft)—31st Meeting of the 12th Standing Committee of NPC on December 22, 2017,” National People’s Congress Net, http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/npc/xinwen/2019-04/23/content_2086166.htm (in Chinese, 周强 (2017) 〈关于《中华人民共和国法官法 (修订草案)》 的说明 - 2017年12月22日在第十二届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第三十一次会议上〉《中国人大网》 (2019年4月23日)).

  24. 24.

    Zhou Qiang, Ibid.

  25. 25.

    “The Judges Law and the Prosecutors Law God Revised: Going to the Actual Path of Standardization, Specialization and Professionalization,” Chinese People’s Congress (中国人大), January 20, 2018, 44-46 (in Chinese, (2018)〈法官法、检察官法修订: 正规化专业化职业化迈出实质性步伐〉 《中国人大》 2: 44–46).

  26. 26.

    “Judges Law of the PRC (2019),” Xinhua Net, http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/2019-04/23/c_1124406804.htm (in Chinese, 〈中华人民共和国法官法〉 《新华网》 (2019年4月23日)).

  27. 27.

    According to the explanation, 2.6% of candidates have graduated from university with a law major, and only 1.3% of these passed the National Bar Examination. Most of them would be willing to get a job in the Eastern and Upper level People’s Courts while, conversely, the Western and Lower level People’s Courts encounter a lack of human resources. “Explanation about ‘The Judges Law of the PRC’: 31st Meeting of the 12th Standing Committee of NPC, December 22, 2017,” The National People’s Congress Net, http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/npc/xinwen/2019-04/23/content_2086166.htm (in Chinese, 周强〈关于《中华人民共和国法官法 (修订草案) 》 的说明 - 2017年12月22日第十二届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第三十一次会议上〉 《中国人大网》 (2019年4月23日)).

  28. 28.

    “Revising 8 Laws: Developing an Entrance System of Being a Legal Staff,” Chinese People’s Congress (中国人大), September 5, 2017, 44–45.

  29. 29.

    “The Report of the Constitution and Law Committee of the NPC about the Revision Circumstance of ‘the Judges Law of the PRC,’” The National People’s Congress Net, http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/npc/xinwen/2019-04/23/content_2086056.htm (in Chinese, 〈全国人民代表大会宪法和法律委员会关于 《中华人民共和国法官法 (修订草案) 》 修改情况的汇报〉 《中国人大网》 (2019年4月23日)).

  30. 30.

    Zhou (December 22, 2017).

  31. 31.

    “The Report of the Constitution and Law Committee of the NPC about the Discussion Result of ‘the Judges Law of the PRC,’” The National People’s Congress Net, http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/npc/xinwen/2019-04/23/content_2086048.htm (in Chinese, 〈全国人民代表大会宪法和法律委员会关于 《中华人民共和国法官法 (修订草案) 》 审议结果的报告〉 《中国人大网》 (2019年4月23日)).

  32. 32.

    Ibid.

  33. 33.

    “Judges Law of the PRC (2019),” Xinhua Net, http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/2019-04/23/c_1124406804.htm (in Chinese, 〈中华人民共和国法官法〉 《新华网》 (2019年4月23日)).

  34. 34.

    The Judge in the Lower People’s Court, Interview by the author, X District Lower People’s Court, Y City, Z Autonomous Region, China, October 2016. People’s Daily also mentioned that “the judges were selected from a veteran, a driver who worked in the People’s Court for a long time, and a guard. The authority that recognized the job of the judges was one of the administrative treatments, not a profession.” “Judges Go to Professionalize,” People’s Daily, July 24, 2002 (in Chinese, 〈法官走向职业化〉 《人民日报》 (2002年7月24日)).

  35. 35.

    The Judge in the Higher People’s Court, interview by the author, G City Higher People’s Court, China, February and August 2015.

  36. 36.

    The Judge in the Lower People’s Court, interview by the author, X District Lower People’s Court, Y City, Z Autonomous Region, China, October 2016.

  37. 37.

    The Judge in the Lower People’s Court, interview by the author, X District Lower People’s Court, Y City, Z Autonomous Region, China, October 2016, The Judge in the Intermediate People’s Court, interview by the author, G City, E Province, China, August 2016 and November 2017, the Lawyers, interview by the author, G City, E Province, China, August 2016.

  38. 38.

    The Lawyer, interview by the author, Y City, Z Autonomous Region, China, October 2016.

  39. 39.

    The Judge in the Lower People’s Court, interview by the author, X District Lower People’s Court, Y City, Z Autonomous Region, China, October 2016.

  40. 40.

    The previous study also mentioned that China has a strong arbitration culture. Takamizawa (1998).

  41. 41.

    Zhang (2003).

  42. 42.

    “The Court in Rural Area,” Southern Weekly, August 21, 2003 (in Chinese, 〈边远法院〉 《南方周末》 (2003年8月21日)).

  43. 43.

    “The Judges’ Level Needs to Improve,” People’s Daily, September 26, 2003 (in Chinese, 〈法官素质待提高〉 《人民日报》 (2003年9月26日)).

  44. 44.

    Wang, Lianyin "The Proposal was Raised by the Representatives of the People’s Congress, Zhao Shijie, Gong Pixiang, Li, Chunlin, and Xu, Xiaoyang—Necessity of Inspection toward the implementation Status of the Judges Law and the Prosecutors Law,” People’s Court Daily, March 10, 2004 (in Chinese, 王连印〈赵仕杰公丕祥李春林徐晓阳等代表建议 - 对法官法和减产观法实施状况应进行大检查〉 《人民法院》 (2004年3月10日)).

  45. 45.

    “Gong Pixiang Proposed—the Inspection of the Implementation Status of the Judges Law and the Prosecutors Law,” People’s Congress Net, http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/xinwen/dbgz/dbzs/2005-03/08/content_336196.htm (in Chinese, 〈公丕祥代表建议 - 检查法官法检察官法实施状况〉 《中国人大网》 (2005年3月8日)).

  46. 46.

    Gu, Xiulian, “the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress Conducted the Inspection of the Implementation Status of the Judges Law and the Prosecutors Law—the 23rd Meeting of the 10th Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress,” People’s Congress Net, http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/xinwen/jdgz/bgjy/2006-08/27/content_351856.htm (in Chinese, 顾秀林 (2008) 〈全国人大常委会执法检查组关于跟踪检查 《中华人民共和国法官法》、《中华人民共和国检察官法》 实施状况的报告 - 2007年8月29日在第十届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第二十九次会议上〉 《全国人民代表大会年鉴》 702).

  47. 47.

    Ibid.

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Acknowledgements

This paper was supported by a JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Researcher Activity Start-up, Kakenhi 17H06507.

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  1. Center for Northeast Asian Studies, Tohoku University, Kawauchi 41, Aoba-ku, 980-8576, Sendai, Japan

    Hiroko Naito

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  1. Hiroko Naito
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  1. Center for Northeast Asian Studies, Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan

    Hiroko Naito

  2. Graduate School of International Relations, International University of Japan, Niigata, Japan

    Vida Macikenaite

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Naito, H. (2020). “Rule of Law” Under the Chinese Communist Party’s Leadership: The Case of the Professionalization of Judges and the CCP’s Governance of the People’s Court. In: Naito, H., Macikenaite, V. (eds) State Capacity Building in Contemporary China. Emerging-Economy State and International Policy Studies. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8898-9_5

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