Abstract
The word China (zhongguo in Chinese, literally, middle kingdom) first appeared in the early years of the Western Zhou, and was in wide use during the Spring and Autumn period, but it was not until modern times that it emerged as the name of the country
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Notes
- 1.
Refer to Qixiang Tan, Zhongguo lishi ditu ji, Vol. 7, Beijing: Sinomaps press, 1982. (Yu)
- 2.
Translation by Tjan Tjoe Som, in Po Hu T’ung (Baihu tong): The Comprehensive Discussions in the White Tiger Hall, tr. Tjan Tjoe Som, Vol. 2, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1952, pp. 574–75. (Yu)
- 3.
Translation by D. C. Lau. Mencius, London: Penguin Books, 1970, 4.B: 22. (Yu)
- 4.
Cf. Guowei Wang, “Yin Zhou zhidu lun,” in Guantang jilin, Vol. 2, Beijing: Zhonghuo shuju, 1959, pp. 460–61.
- 5.
Translation by James Legge. See http://ctext.org/liji/da-zhuang/zh?en=on. (Yu)
- 6.
Correct Meaning of the Book of Rites.
- 7.
Legge’s translation. (Yu)
- 8.
“Zhu gong shan tan lu shiyi,” in Henan Cheng shi waishu, Vol. 1.
- 9.
Zai Zhang, “Zongfa” in Jingxue liku.
- 10.
Shuming Liang , Zhongguo wenhua yaoyi, in Shuming Liang quanji, Vol. 3, Jinan: Shandong People’s Publishing House, 2005, pp. 90–91.
- 11.
English translation by Cary F. Baynes, in The I Ching or Book of Changes, The Richard Wilhelm Translation rendered into English by Cary F. Baynes, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980, p. 541. All translations of the quotations from the Book of Changes in this book are by Baynes, except where it is noted otherwise. (Yu)
- 12.
Translation by J I. Crump, Jr., in Chan-Kuo Ts’e, tr. J. I. Crump, Jr., Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970, p. 106. (Yu)
- 13.
Translation by Michael Loewe, in his Zhongshu Dong, a “Confucian” Heritage and the Chunqiu Fanlu, Leiden: Brill, 2011, p. 324. Note he uses “under the skies” instead of under heaven for tianxia. (Yu)
- 14.
Translation is Sarah A. Queen’s. See Luxuriant Gems of the Spring and Autumn Attributed to Zhongshu Dong, edited and translated by Sarah A. Queen, et al., New York: Columbia University Press, 2016, 3.1, p. 92. (Yu)
- 15.
References were made to Luxuriant Gems, 1.3, p. 72. (Yu)
- 16.
Sarah A. Queen’s translation. See Luxuriant Gems, 6.3, p. 140. (Yu)
- 17.
In most cases I have followed Wing-tsit Chan’s rendition for the three ages. See A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy, tr. and comp. Wing-tsit Chan, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973, p. 726. (Yu)
- 18.
Pi Xirui, “Chunqiu” in Jingxue tonglun, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1954, p. 9.
- 19.
Translation by D. C. Lau, in Mencius, translated with an Introduction by D. C. Lau, New York: Penguin, 1970, 5A.6. (Yu)
- 20.
Translation by John Knoblock, in Xunzi, tr. John Knoblock, Vol. 2, Changsha: Hunan People’s Publishing House, 1999, pp. 574–581. (Yu)
- 21.
Han shi yi zhuan cited in the History of the Former Han, Vol. 77.
- 22.
Translation by Burton Watson, with amendments. See Records of the Grand Historian: Qin Dynasty, by Sima Qian, tr. Burton Watson, Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong and Columbia University Press, 1993, p. 43. (Yu)
- 23.
“Rulin liezhuan” in the Records of the Grand Hisorian.
- 24.
Tjan, op. cit., p. 231. (Yu)
- 25.
Tjan, op. cit., p. 231. (Yu)
- 26.
Translation of the word chengyu is Paul W. Kroll’s; see his A Student’s Dictionary of Classical and Medieval Chinese, Leiden: Brill, 2015, p. 48. (Yu)
- 27.
Yong Cai, Duduan, part one.
- 28.
Qian Mu, Guoshi xinlun, Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company, 2001, p. 124.
- 29.
Translation by Ira E. Kasoff, in his The Thoughts of Chang Tsai (1020–1077), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984, p. 121. (Yu)
- 30.
You Du, Tongdian, Vol. 13, Xuanju 1.
- 31.
Translation from The History of the Former Han Dynasty, “The Annals of Emperor Xiao-Wu,” tr. Homer H. Dubs, 3 vols., Baltimore: Waverly, 1938–55. Digitized text retrieved at http://view2.iath.virginia.edu/saxon/servlet/SaxonServlet?source=xwomen/texts/hanshu.xml&style=xwomen/xsl/dynaxml.xsl&chunk.id=tpage&doc.view=tocc&doc.lang=bilingual. (Yu)
- 32.
“Biography of Zuo Xiong” in the History of the Later Han.
- 33.
Qiao Zheng, Tongzhi ershilue, Xuanjulue.
- 34.
Zhou guan, diguan, situ.
- 35.
Translation by WM. Theodore de Bary, in Sources of Chinese Tradition from Earliest Times to 1600, comp. WM. Theodore de Bary and Irene Bloom, Vol. 1, 2nd ed., New York: Columbia University Press, 1999, p. 723. (Yu)
- 36.
“Rulin zhuan” in the History of the Former Han.
- 37.
“Rulin zhuan” in the History of the Later Han.
- 38.
“Xuanju zhi” in the New History of the Tang.
References were made to Oliver J. Moore, Rituals of Recruitment in Tang China: Reading an Annual Programme in the Collected Statements by Wang Dingbao (870–940), Leiden: Brill, 2004. (Yu)
- 39.
“Xuanju zhi” in the History of the Song.
- 40.
Chun Chen, “Sixue zhi bian” in Beixi da quanji, Vol. 15.
- 41.
Yanwu Gu, Rizhi lu, Vol. 16.
- 42.
Dezhao Wang, Qingdai keju kaoshi zhidu yanjiu, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1984, p. 23.
- 43.
The eight-legged essay requires that every essay be written in a certain pattern, with a fixed number of graphs. The so-called eight legs refer to the eight parts of the essay: poti, chengti, qijiang, rushou, qigu, zhonggu, shugu. Poti means to break the topic with two sentences; chengti means to continue the meaning of the poti, with some explanation; qijiang is the beginning of the argument, often starting a sentence with “it means,” “if it is said,” “I think,” “moreover,” “I thought,” etc.; rushou follows qijiang; qigu, zhonggu, hougu, and shugu are the formal argument, with zhonggu as the pivot of the entire essay. In these four parts, every part needs to have two sections in parallelism, and the four parts thus have eight sections in parallelism in all. This is why it was named eight legs. The topics are mainly taken from the Four Books and the five classics, and the discussion must follow the variorum edition of the Four Books in Chapter and Phrase compiled by Xi Zhu, and is not allowed to go beyond this. Generally the number of the graphs allowed for an eight-legged essay was set at 550 in the reign of the Shunzhi emperor in the Qing, and was changed to 650 in the reign of the Kangxi emperor, and later was changed again to 700.
- 44.
Translation is Wing-tsit Chan’s, in his A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy, p. 98. (Yu)
- 45.
Translation by Ezra Pound, with amendments, in his Confucius, New York: New Directions Publishing Corporation, 1969, p. 199. (Yu)
- 46.
Qing Dezong shilu, Vol. 486.
- 47.
Zhidong Zhang, Quanxue pian, Bian keju 8.
- 48.
Translation amended. For differences in translation, cf. Zuo Tradition/Zuozhuan: Commentary on the “ Spring and Autumn Annals,” translated and introduced by Stephen Durrant, Wai-yee Li, David Schaberg, Vol. 3, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2016, p. 1703. (Yu)
- 49.
Yi Cheng, “Wei jiajun qing Yuwen Zhongyun dian Hanzhou xue shu,” in Wu xing lu, Vol. 2. Xingben, second part.
- 50.
Ming gong shupan qingming ji, Vol. 10.
- 51.
The Master said, “In hearing litigation, I am no different from any other man. But if you insist on a difference, it is, perhaps, that I try to get the parties not to resort to litigation in the first place.” (Analects 12.13)
- 52.
“Li cha” in the Book of Rites of the Elder Dai.
- 53.
Translation by W. K. Liao, in his The Complete Works of Han Fei Tzu, translated with Introduction, Notes and Index, by W. K. Liao, Vol. 2, London: Arthur Probsthan, 1959, p. 188. (Yu)
- 54.
Sarah A. Queen’s translation. See “The Biography of Zhongshu Dong” in Luxuriant Gems, pp. 625, 637. (Yu)
- 55.
For the translation, refer to T’ung-tsu Ch’u (Qu Tongzu), Law and Society in Traditional China, Beijing: The Commercial Press, 2011, p. 363. (Yu)
- 56.
Refer to Qu Tongzu, Qu Tongzu faxue lunzhu ji, Beijing: Zhongguo Zhengfa Daxue chubanshe, 1998.
- 57.
For translation of the sections in the passage related to The Tang Code, I have mainly referred to The Tang Code, translated with an Introduction by Wallace Johnson, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979. (Yu)
- 58.
Tongzu Qu, “Falü zai Zhongguo shehui zhong de zuoyong” in Tongzu Qu faxue lunzhu ji, Beijing: Zhongguo Zhengfa Daxue chubanshe, 1998, p. 400.
- 59.
Ibid., p. 27.
- 60.
I have followed, in translation of zhiwai faquan, Yen-p’ing Hao and Erh-min Wang in The Cambridge History of China, ed. Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank, Vol. 11, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980, p. 195. (Yu)
- 61.
For the translation of lü and li, I have followed William C. Jones’s suggestion in The Great Qing Code, tr. William C. Jones, with the assistance of Tianquan Cheng and Yongling Jiang, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994, p. 3. (Yu)
- 62.
Qing Dezong shilu, Vol. 495.
- 63.
Fu Yan, “Lun shibian zhi ji,“ included in Shi Wang, ed., Yan Fu ji, Vol. 1, Beijiing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1986, p. 3.
- 64.
Zhang Wenxiang gong quanji, Vol. 69.
- 65.
William C. Jones’s translation, in The Great Qing Code, p. 415. (Yu)
- 66.
Cf. Min Tu-ki, op. cit., p. 153. (Yu)
- 67.
Qingchao xu Wenxian tongkao, Xinggai 6.
- 68.
Naixuan Lao, “Xiuzheng xinglü caoan shuotie,” in Tongxiang Lao xiansheng (Naixuan) yigao, Sect. 2.
- 69.
Cf. Denis. C. Twitchett’s translation—the Militias of the Armies, in his Financial Administration under the T’ang Dynasty, London: The Cambridge University Press, 1963, p. 133; also, Howard J. Wechsler’s intrepid militia units, in The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 3, Part I, London: The Cambridge University Press, 1979, p. 207. (Yu)
- 70.
Refer to Twitchett, Financial Administration under the T’ang Dynasty, pp. 1–17. (Yu)
- 71.
Followed Ch’i-ch’ing Hsiao in translation of myriarchs, chiliarchs, and centurions. See his The Military Establishment of the Yuan Dynasty, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978, p. 72. (Yu)
- 72.
Nancy Lee Swann’s translation. See her Food and Money in Ancient China: The Earliest Economic History of China to A.D. 24, Han Shu 24, with Related Texts, Han Shu 91 and Shih-chi 129, translated and annotated by Nancy Lee Swann, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950, pp. 116–118. (Yu)
- 73.
Cf. Burton Watson, tr., The Records of the Grand Historian, Qin Dynasty, Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1993, p. 94. (Yu)
- 74.
Duanlin Ma, “Tianfu kao” in Wenxian tongkao.
References in translation were made to the History of the Former Han Dynasty and Burton Watson’s translation of Hanshu in Sources of Chinese Tradition: From Earliest Times to 1600, Vol. 1, comp. WM. Theodore de Bary et al., New York: Columbia University Press, 1999, pp. 363–364. (Yu)
- 75.
“Shihuo zhi” in the History of the Wei.
- 76.
References were made to Nishijima Sadao’s translation in The Cambridge History of China, ed. Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank, Vol. 1, p. 595. (Yu)
- 77.
Wm. Theodore de Bary’s translation. See his Waiting for the Dawn: A Plan for the Prince, Huang Tsung-hsi’s Ming-i-tai-fang lu, New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, pp. 134–136. (Yu)
Reference
Qian, M. (2001). Guoshi xin lun. SDX Joint Publishing Company.
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Gan, C. (2019). All Under Heaven, States, Institutions, Rites and Customs. In: A Concise Reader of Chinese Culture. China Insights. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8867-5_2
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