Abstract
Biofilms are communistic and complex network of microorganisms concealed in an autogenic polymeric matrix made up of polysaccharides, proteins and extracellular DNA. These surface attached microbial communities are responsible for more than 65% of human infections and have emerged as a major public health concern. Owing to their high population densities and cellular proximity, biofilms act as a barrier to antibiotic diffusion and are notoriously difficult to eradicate. Hence, high resistance of biofilm-associated infections to antibiotic therapy is one of the biggest clinical challenges. Yet our understanding about them needs further research and strategies for their control remain to be elucidated. This chapter is dedicated to gain insight into biofilm architecture and to study the mechanisms for their recalcitrance to antimicrobial therapy. Given the serious and pervasive clinical impact of biofilm-related infections, most recent strategies for their treatment have also been discussed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Algburi A et al (2017) Control of biofilm formation: antibiotics and beyond. Appl Environ Microbiol Edited by M. J. Pettinari 83(3). https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.02508-16
Amato SM et al (2014) The role of metabolism in bacterial persistence. Front Microbiol Frontiers Media SA 5:70. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2014.00070
Ayrapetyan M, Williams TC, Oliver JD (2015) Bridging the gap between viable but non-culturable and antibiotic persistent bacteria. Trends Microbiol 23(1):7–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2014.09.004
Bak G et al (2015) Identification of novel sRNAs involved in biofilm formation, motility and fimbriae formation in Escherichia coli. Sci Rep Nature Publishing Group 5(1):15287. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep15287
Balaban N et al (2007) Treatment of Staphylococcus aureus biofilm infection by the quorum-sensing inhibitor RIP. Antimicrob Agents Chemother American Society for Microbiology Journals 51(6):2226–2229. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.01097-06
Bassler BL (2002) Small talk: cell-to-cell communication in bacteria. Cell Cell Press 109(4):421–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(02)00749-3
Beloin C, Roux A, Ghigo JM (2008) Escherichia coli biofilms. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 322:249–289. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18453280. Accessed 9 Sept 2018
Borgeaud S et al (2015) The type VI secretion system of Vibrio cholerae fosters horizontal gene transfer. Science 347(6217):63–67. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1260064
Branda SS et al (2006) A major protein component of the Bacillus subtilis biofilm matrix. Mol Microbiol 59(4):1229–1238. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2958.2005.05020.x
Brown MR, Allison DG, GilbertP (1988) Resistance of bacterial biofilms to antibiotics: a growth-rate related effect?. J Antimicrob Chemother 22(6):777–780. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3072331. Accessed 26 Aug 2018
Cegelski L et al (2009) Small-molecule inhibitors target Escherichia coli amyloid biogenesis and biofilm formation. Nat Chem Biol NIH Public Access 5(12):913–919. https://doi.org/10.1038/nchembio.242
Chambers JR, Sauer K (2013) Small RNAs and their role in biofilm formation. Trends Microbiol NIH Public Access 21(1):39–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2012.10.008
Chao Y, Vogel J (2010) The role of Hfq in bacterial pathogens. Curr Opin Microbiol 13(1):24–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2010.01.001
Chen T, Li F, Chen B-S (2009) Cross-talks of sensory transcription networks in response to various environmental stresses. Interdiscipl Sci Comput Life Sci 1(1):46–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12539-008-0018-1
Cihalova K et al (2015) Staphylococcus aureus and MRSA growth and biofilm formation after treatment with antibiotics and SeNPs. Intl J Mol Sci Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute 16(10):24656–24672. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161024656
Ciofu O et al (2017) Antibiotic treatment of biofilm infections. APMIS. Wiley/Blackwell (10.1111) 125(4):304–319. https://doi.org/10.1111/apm.12673
Cirino ICS et al (2014) The essential oil from Origanum vulgare L. and its individual constituents carvacrol and thymol enhance the effect of tetracycline against Staphylococcus aureus. Chemotherapy. Karger Publishers 60(5–6):290–293. https://doi.org/10.1159/000381175
Coelho FL, Pereira MO (2013) Exploring new treatment strategies for Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm infections based on plant essential oils. Formatex:83–89
Colvin KM et al (2012) The Pel and Psl polysaccharides provide Pseudomonas aeruginosa structural redundancy within the biofilm matrix. Environ Microbiol NIH Public Access 14(8):1913–1928. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-2920.2011.02657.x
Conlon BP, Rowe SE, Lewis K (2015) Persister cells in biofilm associated infections. In: Adv Exp Med Biol, vol 831, pp 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09782-4_1
Connell SR et al (2003) Ribosomal protection proteins and their mechanism of tetracycline resistance.’, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 47(12), 3675–3681. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14638464. Accessed 24 Aug 2018
Costerton JW, Geesey GG, Cheng KJ (1978) How bacteria stick. Sci Am 238(1):86–95. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/635520. Accessed 12 Aug 2018
Cusumano CK et al (2011) Treatment and prevention of urinary tract infection with orally active FimH inhibitors. Sci Transl Med 3(109):109ra115–109ra115. https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.3003021
Darouiche RO, Darouiche RO (2001) Device-associated infections: a macroproblem that starts with microadherence. Clin Infect Dis Oxford University Press 33(9):1567–1572. https://doi.org/10.1086/323130
Davey ME, O’toole GA (2000) Microbial biofilms: from ecology to molecular genetics. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev MMBR 64(4):847–867. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11104821. Accessed 12 Aug 2018
De Kievit TR et al (2001) Multidrug efflux pumps: expression patterns and contribution to antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 45(6):1761–1770. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.45.6.1761-1770.2001
de la Fuente-Núñez C et al (2014) Broad-spectrum anti-biofilm peptide that targets a cellular stress response. PLoS Pathogens Edited by M R Parsek Public Library of Science 10(5):e1004152. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1004152
Di Luca M, Maccari G, Nifosì R (2014) Treatment of microbial biofilms in the post-antibiotic era: prophylactic and therapeutic use of antimicrobial peptides and their design by bioinformatics tools. Pathog Dis Oxford University Press 70(3):257–270. https://doi.org/10.1111/2049-632X.12151
Diggle SP et al (2006) The galactophilic lectin, LecA, contributes to biofilm development in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Environ Microbiol 8(6):1095–1104. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-2920.2006.001001.x
Donelli, G. et al (2007) Synergistic activity of dispersin B and cefamandole nafate in inhibition of staphylococcal biofilm growth on polyurethanes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother American Society for Microbiology Journals 51(8):2733–2740. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.01249-06
Donlan RM (2001) Biofilms and device-associated infections. Emerg Infect Dis Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 7(2):277–281. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0702.700277
Dosler S, Mataraci E (2013) In vitro pharmacokinetics of antimicrobial cationic peptides alone and in combination with antibiotics against methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus biofilms. Peptides 49:53–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2013.08.008
Eckhart L et al (2007) DNase1L2 suppresses biofilm formation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. Br J Dermatol 156(6):1342–1345. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2007.07886.x
Fauvart M, De Groote VN, Michiels J (2011) Role of persister cells in chronic infections: clinical relevance and perspectives on anti-persister therapies. J Med Microbiol 60(6):699–709. https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.030932-0
Fernandes P, Ferreira BS, Cabral JMS (2003) Solvent tolerance in bacteria: role of efflux pumps and cross-resistance with antibiotics. Int J Antimicrob Agents 22(3):211–216. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13678823. Accessed: 26 Aug 2018
Flemming H-C, Wingender J (2010) The biofilm matrix. Nat Rev Microbiol 8(9):623–633. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2415
Flores-Kim J, Darwin AJ (2014) Regulation of bacterial virulence gene expression by cell envelope stress responses. Virulence Taylor & Francis 5(8):835–851. https://doi.org/10.4161/21505594.2014.965580
Fux CA et al (2005) Survival strategies of infectious biofilms. Trends Microbiol 13(1):34–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2004.11.010
Gao G et al (2011) The biocompatibility and biofilm resistance of implant coatings based on hydrophilic polymer brushes conjugated with antimicrobial peptides. Biomaterials Elsevier 32(16):3899–3909. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BIOMATERIALS.2011.02.013
Garrett TR, Bhakoo M, Zhang Z (2008) Bacterial adhesion and biofilms on surfaces. Prog Nat Sci Elsevier 18(9):1049–1056. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PNSC.2008.04.001
Giwercman B et al (1991) Induction of beta-lactamase production in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm. Antimicrob Agents Chemother American Society for Microbiology (ASM) 35(5):1008–1010. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1906694. Accessed: 23 Aug 2018
Gloag ES et al (2013) Self-organization of bacterial biofilms is facilitated by extracellular DNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci 110(28):11541–11546. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1218898110
Gurunathan S et al (2014) Enhanced antibacterial and anti-biofilm activities of silver nanoparticles against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Nanoscale Res Lett 9(1):373. https://doi.org/10.1186/1556-276X-9-373
Habash MB et al (2017) Potentiation of tobramycin by silver nanoparticles against Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 61(11). https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00415-17
Hall CW, Mah T-F (2017) Molecular mechanisms of biofilm-based antibiotic resistance and tolerance in pathogenic bacteria. FEMS Microbiol Rev 41(3):276–301. https://doi.org/10.1093/femsre/fux010
Hall-Stoodley L, Stoodley P (2009) Evolving concepts in biofilm infections. Cell Microbiol Wiley/Blackwell (10.1111) 11(7):1034–1043. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-5822.2009.01323.x
Hall-Stoodley L, Costerton JW, Stoodley P (2004) Bacterial biofilms: from the natural environment to infectious diseases. Nat Rev Microbiol 2(2):95–108. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro821
Hammer KA, Carson CF, Riley TV (1999) Antimicrobial activity of essential oils and other plant extracts. J Appl Microbiol Wiley/Blackwell (10.1111) 86(6):985–990. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2672.1999.00780.x
Harrison JJ, Ceri H, Turner RJ (2007) Multimetal resistance and tolerance in microbial biofilms. Nat Rev Microbiol 5(12):928–938. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro1774
Helaine S, Kugelberg E (2014) Bacterial persisters: formation, eradication, and experimental systems. Trends Microbiol 22(7):417–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2014.03.008
Hengge-Aronis R (2002) Signal transduction and regulatory mechanisms involved in control of the sigma(S) (RpoS) subunit of RNA polymerase. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev MMBR, 66(3), p. 373–395, table of contents. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12208995. Accessed 9 Sept 2018
Hengzhuang W et al (2012) In vivo pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics of colistin and imipenem in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother American Society for Microbiology Journals 56(5):2683–2690. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.06486-11
Henrici AT (1933) Studies of freshwater bacteria: I. A direct microscopic technique. J Bacteriol American Society for Microbiology (ASM) 25(3):277–287. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16559616. Accessed 12 Aug 2018
Herrmann G et al (2010) Colistin-Tobramycin combinations are superior to monotherapy concerning the killing of biofilm Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Infect Dis Oxford University Press 202(10):1585–1592. https://doi.org/10.1086/656788
Hodges NA, Gordon CA (1991) Protection of Pseudomonas aeruginosa against ciprofloxacin and beta-lactams by homologous alginate. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 35(11):2450–2452. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1804025. Accessed 12 Aug 2018
Høiby, N. (1988) ‘Hemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas cepacia, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in patients with cystic fibrosis.’, Chest, 94(2 Suppl), p. 97S–103S. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3293941. Accessed 24 Aug 2018
Høiby N et al (2010) Antibiotic resistance of bacterial biofilms. Intl J Antimicrob Agents Elsevier 35(4):322–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJANTIMICAG.2009.12.011
Holland TL et al (2016) Infective endocarditis. Nature Rev Dis Primers NIH Public Access 2:16059. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrdp.2016.59
Irie Y et al (2010) Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm matrix polysaccharide Psl is regulated transcriptionally by RpoS and post-transcriptionally by RsmA. Mol Microbiol Wiley-Blackwell 78(1):158–172. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2958.2010.07320.x
Izano EA et al (2007) Detachment and killing of Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans biofilms by Dispersin B and SDS. J Dent Res 86(7):618–622. https://doi.org/10.1177/154405910708600707
Jamal M et al (2018) Bacterial biofilm and associated infections. J Chin Med Assoc 81(1):7–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcma.2017.07.012
Joo H-S, Otto M (2012) Molecular basis of in vivo biofilm formation by bacterial pathogens. Chem Biol 19(12):1503–1513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chembiol.2012.10.022
Kalpana BJ, Aarthy S, Pandian SK (2012) Antibiofilm Activity of α-Amylase from Bacillus subtilis S8–18 Against Biofilm Forming Human Bacterial Pathogens. Appl Biochem Biotechnol Springer-Verlag 167(6):1778–1794. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-011-9526-2
Karatan E, Watnick P (2009) Signals, regulatory networks, and materials that build and break bacterial biofilms. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 73(2):310–347. https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.00041-08
Kavanaugh NL, Ribbeck K (2012) Selected antimicrobial essential oils eradicate Pseudomonas spp. and Staphylococcus aureus biofilms. Appl Environ Microbiol. American Society for Microbiology 78(11):4057–4061. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.07499-11
Keren I et al (2011) Characterization and transcriptome analysis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis persisters. mBio American Society for Microbiology 2(3):e00100-11. https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.00100-11
Khan W et al (2010) Aminoglycoside resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms modulated by extracellular polysaccharide. Intl Microbiol 13(4):207–212. https://doi.org/10.2436/20.1501.01.127
Kharidia R, Liang JF (2011) The activity of a small lytic peptide PTP-7 on Staphylococcus aureus biofilms. J Microbiol 49(4):663–668. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12275-011-1013-5
Kim H-S, Park H-D (2013) Ginger extract inhibits biofilm formation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa PA14. PLoS ONE Edited by J Vadivelu Public Library of Science 8(9):e76106. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0076106
Kim H-S et al (2015) 6-Gingerol reduces Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm formation and virulence via quorum sensing inhibition. Sci Rep Nature Publishing Group 5(1):8656. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep08656
Kiran, S. et al. (2011) ‘Enzymatic quorum quenching increases antibiotic susceptibility of multidrug resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa.’, Iranian J Microbiol Tehran University of Medical Sciences, 3(1), pp. 1–12. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22347576. Accessed 10 Sept 2018
Koo H et al (2017) Targeting microbial biofilms: current and prospective therapeutic strategies. Nat Rev Microbiol 15(12):740–755. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro.2017.99
Kostakioti M, Hadjifrangiskou M, Hultgren SJ (2013) Bacterial biofilms: development, dispersal, and therapeutic strategies in the Dawn of the Postantibiotic era. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 3(4):a010306–a010306. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a010306
Kumar, C. G. and Anand, S. K. (1998) ‘Significance of microbial biofilms in food industry: a review.’, Int J Food Microbiol, 42(1–2), pp. 9–27. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9706794. Accessed 10 Sept 2018
Lasa I, Penadés JR (2006) Bap: a family of surface proteins involved in biofilm formation. Res Microbiol 157(2):99–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resmic.2005.11.003
Laub R, Schneider YJ, Trouet A (1989) Antibiotic susceptibility of Salmonella spp. at different pH values. J Gen Microbiol 135(6):1407–1406. https://doi.org/10.1099/00221287-135-6-1407
Lebeaux D, Ghigo J-M, Beloin C (2014) Biofilm-related infections: bridging the gap between clinical management and fundamental aspects of recalcitrance toward antibiotics. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev MMBR American Society for Microbiology (ASM) 78(3):510–543. https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.00013-14
Lee, A. et al. (2000) ‘Interplay between efflux pumps may provide either additive or multiplicative effects on drug resistance.’, J Bacteriol, 182(11), pp. 3142–3150. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10809693. Accessed 26 Aug 2018
Lee J-H et al (2014) ZnO nanoparticles inhibit Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm formation and virulence factor production. Microbiol Res Urban & Fischer 169(12):888–896. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MICRES.2014.05.005
Leid, J. G. et al. (2005) ‘The exopolysaccharide alginate protects Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm bacteria from IFN-gamma-mediated macrophage killing.’, J Immunol, 175(11), pp. 7512–7518. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16301659. Accessed 12 Aug 2018
Lewis, K. (2005) ‘Persister cells and the riddle of biofilm survival.’, Biochemistry Biokhimiia, 70(2), pp. 267–274. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15807669. Accessed 9 Sept 2018
Lewis K (2008) Multidrug tolerance of biofilms and persister cells. In Current topics in microbiology and immunology, vol 322, pp 107–131. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18453274. Accessed 9 Sept 2018
Li J et al (2007) Quorum sensing in Escherichia coli is signaled by AI-2/LsrR: effects on small RNA and biofilm architecture. J Bacteriol 189(16):6011–6020. https://doi.org/10.1128/JB.00014-07
Li L et al (2014) The importance of the viable but non-culturable state in human bacterial pathogens. Front Microbiol 5:258. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2014.00258
López D, Vlamakis H, Kolter R (2010) Biofilms. Cold Spring Harbor Perspect Biol Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press 2(7):a000398. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a000398.
Lu TK, Collins JJ (2007) Dispersing biofilms with engineered enzymatic bacteriophage. Proc Natl Acad Sci 104(27):11197–11202. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0704624104
Lynch DJ et al (2007) Glucan-binding proteins are essential for shaping Streptococcus mutans biofilm architecture. FEMS Microbiol Lett NIH Public Access 268(2):158–165. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-6968.2006.00576.x.
Mah T-F (2012) Biofilm-specific antibiotic resistance. Future Microbiol 7(9):1061–1072. https://doi.org/10.2217/fmb.12.76
Marić S, Vraneš J (2007) Characteristics and significance of microbial biofilm formation. Period Biol. Available at: https://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/314210.9._Maric_Vranes-Periodicum.pdf. Accessed 12 Aug 2018
Martinez-Gutierrez F et al (2013) Anti-biofilm activity of silver nanoparticles against different microorganisms. Biofouling Routledge 29(6):651–660. https://doi.org/10.1080/08927014.2013.794225
Matsumura, K. et al. (2011) ‘Roles of multidrug efflux pumps on the biofilm formation of Escherichia coli K-12.’, Biocontrol Sci, 16(2), pp. 69–72. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21719992. Accessed: 26 Aug 2018
McCoy WF et al (1981) Observations of fouling biofilm formation. Can J Microbiol NRC Research Press Ottawa, Canada 27(9):910–917. https://doi.org/10.1139/m81-143
Melo MN, Ferre R, Castanho MARB (2009) Antimicrobial peptides: linking partition, activity and high membrane-bound concentrations. Nat Rev Microbiol 7(3):245–250. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2095
Merod RT, Wuertz S (2014) Extracellular polymeric substance architecture influences natural genetic transformation of Acinetobacter baylyi in biofilms. Appl Environ Microbiol. American Society for Microbiology 80(24):7752–7757. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.01984-14
Merril CR et al (1996) Long-circulating bacteriophage as antibacterial agents. Proc Natl Acad Sci National Academy of Sciences 93(8):3188–3192. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.93.8.3188
Mika F, Hengge R (2014) Small RNAs in the control of RpoS, CsgD, and biofilm architecture of Escherichia coli. RNA Biol Taylor & Francis 11(5):494–507. https://doi.org/10.4161/rna.28867
Montanaro L et al (2011) Extracellular DNA in biofilms. Int J Artif Organs 34(9):824–831. https://doi.org/10.5301/ijao.5000051
Monzón M et al (2002) Biofilm testing of Staphylococcus epidermidis clinical isolates: low performance of vancomycin in relation to other antibiotics. Diag Microbiol Infect Dis 44(4):319–324. Available at.: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12543535. Accessed 26 Aug 2018
Moreau-Marquis S, Stanton BA, O’Toole GA (2008) Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm formation in the cystic fibrosis airway. Pulm Pharmacol Therap NIH Public Access 21(4):595–599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pupt.2007.12.001
Mulcahy H, Charron-Mazenod L, Lewenza S (2008) Extracellular DNA chelates cations and induces antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilms. PLoS Pathog Edited by M. S. Gilmore. Public Library of Science 4(11):e1000213. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1000213
Murray J (1860) On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. Br Foreig Medico-Chirurgical Rev Biomedical Journal Digitization Project 25(50):367–404. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30164232. Accessed 10 Sept 2018.
Lambadi et al (2015) Facile biofunctionalization of silver nanoparticles for enhanced antibacterial properties, endotoxin removal, and biofilm control. Int J Nanomedicine 10:2155. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S72923
Nazzaro F et al (2013) Effect of essential oils on pathogenic bacteria. Pharmaceuticals (Basel, Switzerland) Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI) 6(12):1451–1474. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph6121451
Nelson DC et al (2012) Endolysins as antimicrobials. In: Advances in virus research, vol 83. Academic, New York, pp 299–365. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394438-2.00007-4
Nishino K et al (2011) Effect of overexpression of small non-coding DsrA RNA on multidrug efflux in Escherichia coli. J Antimicrob Chemother 66(2):291–296. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkq420
Nostro A et al (2007) Effects of oregano, carvacrol and thymol on Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilms. J Med Microbiol Microbiology Society 56(4):519–523. https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.46804-0
Novović K et al (2018) Acinetobacter spp. porin Omp33-36: classification and transcriptional response to carbapenems and host cells. PLOS ONE Edited by Z Ruan 13(8):e0201608. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201608
O’Toole G, Kaplan HB, Kolter R (2000) Biofilm formation as microbial development. Annu Rev Microbiol 54(1):49–79. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.micro.54.1.49
Ogasawara H, Yamamoto K, Ishihama A (2011) Role of the biofilm master regulator CsgD in cross-regulation between biofilm formation and flagellar synthesis. J Bacteriol 193(10):2587–2597. https://doi.org/10.1128/JB.01468-10
Okshevsky M, Meyer RL (2015) The role of extracellular DNA in the establishment, maintenance and perpetuation of bacterial biofilms. Crit Rev Microbiol Informa Healthcare 41(3):341–352. https://doi.org/10.3109/1040841X.2013.841639
Ordax M et al (2010) Exopolysaccharides favor the survival of Erwinia amylovora under copper stress through different strategies. Res Microbiol 161(7):549–555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resmic.2010.05.003
Oubekka SD, Briandet R, Fontaine-Aupart MP, Steenkeste K (2012) Correlative time-resolved fluorescence microscopy to assess antibiotic diffusionreaction in biofilms. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 56(6):3349–3358
Paczkowski JE et al (2017) Flavonoids suppress Pseudomonas aeruginosa virulence through allosteric inhibition of quorum-sensing receptors. J Biol Chem American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 292(10):4064–4076. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M116.770552
Palmer J, Flint S, Brooks J (2007) Bacterial cell attachment, the beginning of a biofilm. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol Springer-Verlag 34(9):577–588. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10295-007-0234-4
Pamp SJ et al (2008) Tolerance to the antimicrobial peptide colistin in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms is linked to metabolically active cells, and depends on the pmr and mexAB-oprM genes. Mol Microbiol 68(1):223–240. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2958.2008.06152.x
Parsek MR, Singh PK (2003) Bacterial biofilms: an emerging link to disease pathogenesis. Annu Rev Microbiol 57(1):677–701. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.micro.57.030502.090720
Pearson JP, Van Delden C, Iglewski BH (1999) Active efflux and diffusion are involved in transport of Pseudomonas aeruginosa cell-to-cell signals. J Bacteriol 181(4):1203–1210. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9973347. Accessed 26 Aug 2018
Percival SL et al (2015) Healthcare-associated infections, medical devices and biofilms: risk, tolerance and control. https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.000032
Peulen T-O, Wilkinson KJ (2011) Diffusion of nanoparticles in a biofilm. Environ Sci Technol American Chemical Society 45(8):3367–3373. https://doi.org/10.1021/es103450g
Piddock LJV (2006) Clinically relevant chromosomally encoded multidrug resistance efflux pumps in Bacteria. Clin Microbiol Rev 19(2):382–402. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.19.2.382-402.2006
Pires D et al (2017) Phage therapy as an alternative or complementary strategy to prevent and control biofilm-related infections. Curr Opin Microbiol Elsevier Current Trends 39:48–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MIB.2017.09.004
Pompilio A et al (2011) Antibacterial and anti-biofilm effects of cathelicidin peptides against pathogens isolated from cystic fibrosis patients. Peptides 32(9):1807–1814. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2011.08.002
Popova C, Dosseva-Panova V, Panov V (2013) Microbiology of periodontal diseases. A review. Biotechnol Biotechnol Equip 27(3):3754–3759. https://doi.org/10.5504/BBEQ.2013.0027
Qayyum S, Khan AU (2014) From chip-in-a-lab to lab-on-a-chip: towards a single handheld electronic system for multiple application-specific lab-on-a-chip (ASLOC). Med Chem Commun 7:1479–1498. https://doi.org/10.1039/c6md00124f
Rabin N et al (2015a) Agents that inhibit bacterial biofilm formation. Future Med Chem 7(5):647–671. https://doi.org/10.4155/fmc.15.7
Rabin N et al (2015b) Biofilm formation mechanisms and targets for developing antibiofilm agents. Future Med Chem 7(4):493–512. https://doi.org/10.4155/fmc.15.6
Ramamurthy T et al (2014) Current perspectives on viable but non-Culturable (VBNC) pathogenic Bacteria. Front Pub Health Frontiers Media SA 2:103. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2014.00103
Reen FJ et al (2018) Coumarin: a novel player in microbial quorum sensing and biofilm formation inhibition. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol Springer Berlin Heidelberg 102(5):2063–2073. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-018-8787-x
Rijnaarts HHM et al (1995) Reversibility and mechanism of bacterial adhesion. Coll Surf B Biointerfaces Elsevier 4(1):5–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/0927-7765(94)01146-V
Römling U et al (1998) Curli fibers are highly conserved between Salmonella typhimurium and Escherichia coli with respect to operon structure and regulation. J Bacteriol 180(3):722–731. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9457880. Accessed 9 Sept 2018
RodrÃguez-Rubio L, MartÃnez B, Donovan DM, RodrÃguez A, GarcÃa P (2013) Bacteriophage virion-associated peptidoglycan hydrolases: potential new enzybiotics. Crit Rev Microbiol 39(4):427–434
Roy V et al (2013) AI-2 analogs and antibiotics: a synergistic approach to reduce bacterial biofilms. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 97(6):2627–2638. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-012-4404-6
Rutherford ST et al (2011) AphA and LuxR/HapR reciprocally control quorum sensing in vibrios. Genes & Develop Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press 25(4):397–408. https://doi.org/10.1101/gad.2015011
Saginur R et al (2006) Multiple combination bactericidal testing of staphylococcal biofilms from implant-associated infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 50(1):55–61. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.50.1.55-61.2006
Saini H, Chhibber S, Harjai K (2015) Azithromycin and ciprofloxacin: a possible synergistic combination against Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm-associated urinary tract infections. Intl J Antimicrob Agents Elsevier 45(4):359–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2014.11.008
Samad T et al (2017) Swimming bacteria promote dispersal of non-motile staphylococcal species. ISME J 11(8):1933–1937. https://doi.org/10.1038/ismej.2017.23
Sauer K (2003) The genomics and proteomics of biofilm formation. Genome Biol BioMed Central 4(6):219. https://doi.org/10.1186/gb-2003-4-6-219
Sauer K et al (2004) Characterization of nutrient-induced dispersion in Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 biofilm. J Bacteriol 186(21):7312–7326. https://doi.org/10.1128/JB.186.21.7312-7326.2004
Sharma A et al (2017) Fosfomycin resistance in Acinetobacter baumannii is mediated by efflux through a major facilitator superfamily (MFS) transporter—AbaF. J Antimicrob Chemother Oxford University Press 72(1):68–74. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkw382
Silva IN et al (2018) The OmpR regulator of Burkholderia multivorans controls mucoid-to-nonmucoid transition and other cell envelope properties associated with persistence in the cystic fibrosis lung. J Bacteriol American Society for Microbiology Journals 200(17):e00216–e00218. https://doi.org/10.1128/JB.00216-18.
Singh PK et al (2002) A component of innate immunity prevents bacterial biofilm development. Nature 417(6888):552–555. https://doi.org/10.1038/417552a
Singh V et al (2015) Enzymatic degradation of bacterial biofilms using Aspergillus clavatus MTCC 1323. Microbiology Pleiades Publishing 84(1):59–64. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0026261715010130
Singh S et al (2017) Understanding the mechanism of bacterial biofilms resistance to antimicrobial agents. Open Microbiol J Bentham Science Publishers 11:53–62. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874285801711010053
Spaulding CN et al (2017) Selective depletion of uropathogenic E. coli from the gut by a FimH antagonist. Nature Nature Publishing Group 546(7659):528. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature22972
Stevens WW et al (2015) Chronic rhinosinusitis pathogenesis. J Allergy Clin Immunol NIH Public Access 136(6):1442–1453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2015.10.009
Stoodley P et al (2002) Biofilms as complex differentiated communities. Annu Rev Microbiol 56(1):187–209. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.micro.56.012302.160705
Su H-L et al (2009) The disruption of bacterial membrane integrity through ROS generation induced by nanohybrids of silver and clay. Biomaterials Elsevier 30(30):5979–5987. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BIOMATERIALS.2009.07.030
Sutherland IW (1999) Biofilm exopolysaccharides. In: Microbial extracellular polymeric substances. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, pp 73–92. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-60147-7_4
Sutherland IW et al (2004) The interaction of phage and biofilms. FEMS Microbiol Lett 232(1):1–6. Available at.: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15061140. Accessed 10 Sept 2018
Thomason MK, Storz G (2010) Bacterial antisense RNAs: how many are there, and what are they doing? Annu Rev Genet 44(1):167–188. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-genet-102209-163523
Tielker D et al (2005) Pseudomonas aeruginosa lectin LecB is located in the outer membrane and is involved in biofilm formation. Microbiology 151(5):1313–1323. https://doi.org/10.1099/mic.0.27701-0
Toledo-Arana A et al. (2001) The enterococcal surface protein, Esp, is involved in Enterococcus faecalis biofilm formation. Appl Environ Microbiol American Society for Microbiology (ASM) 67(10):4538–4545. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.67.10.4538-4545.2001
Tribedi P, Sil AK (2014) Cell surface hydrophobicity: a key component in the degradation of polyethylene succinate by Pseudomonas sp. AKS2. J Appl Microbiol 116(2):295–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/jam.12375
Uroz S, Dessaux Y, Oger P (2009) Quorum sensing and quorum quenching: the yin and Yang of bacterial communication. Chem Bio Chem Wiley-Blackwell 10(2):205–216. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbic.200800521
Valle J et al (2006) Broad-spectrum biofilm inhibition by a secreted bacterial polysaccharide. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA National Academy of Sciences 103(33):12558–12563. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0605399103
Vijayakumar SRV et al (2004) RpoS-regulated genes of Escherichia coli identified by random lacZ fusion mutagenesis. J Bacteriol American Society for Microbiology (ASM) 186(24):8499–8507. https://doi.org/10.1128/JB.186.24.8499-8507.2004
Vorkapic D, Pressler K, Schild S (2016) Multifaceted roles of extracellular DNA in bacterial physiology. Current genetics Springer 62(1):71–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00294-015-0514-x
Wakimoto N et al (2004) Quantitative biofilm assay using a microtiter plate to screen for enteroaggregative Escherichia coli. Am J Trop Med Hyg 71(5):687–90. Available at.: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15569806. Accessed: 26 Aug 2018
Walters MC, Roe F, Bugnicourt A, Franklin MJ, Stewart PS (2003) Contributions of antibiotic penetration, oxygen limitation, and low metabolic activity to tolerance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms to ciprofloxacin and tobramycin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47(1):317–323
Wang BY, Chi B, Kuramitsu HK (2002) Genetic exchange between Treponema denticola and Streptococcus gordonii in biofilms. Oral Microbiol Immunol 17(2):108–112. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11929558. Accessed 26 Aug 2018
Wang L, Hu C, Shao L (2017) The antimicrobial activity of nanoparticles: present situation and prospects for the future. Intl J Nanomed Dove Press 12:1227–1249. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S121956
Whitchurch CB et al (2002) Extracellular DNA required for bacterial biofilm formation. Science 295(5559):1487–1487. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.295.5559.1487
Yap PSX et al (2014) Essential oils, a new horizon in combating bacterial antibiotic resistance. Open Microbiol J Bentham Science Publishers 8:6–14. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874285801408010006
Zeng X et al (2011) Synergistic effect of 14-alpha-Lipoyl Andrographolide and various antibiotics on the formation of biofilms and production of exopolysaccharide and Pyocyanin by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 55(6):3015–3017. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00575-10
Zhao G et al (2013) Biofilms and inflammation in chronic wounds. Adv Wound Care Mary Ann Liebert, Inc 2(7):389–399. https://doi.org/10.1089/wound.2012.0381
Zobell CE, Allen EC (1935) The significance of marine Bacteria in the fouling of submerged surfaces. J Bacteriol American Society for Microbiology (ASM) 29(3):239–251. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16559784. Accessed 12 Aug 2018
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Bhando, T., Dubey, V., Pathania, R. (2019). Biofilms in Antimicrobial Activity and Drug Resistance. In: Mandal, S., Paul, D. (eds) Bacterial Adaptation to Co-resistance. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8503-2_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8503-2_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-13-8502-5
Online ISBN: 978-981-13-8503-2
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)