Abstract
This chapter criticizes how the novel Wolf Totem promotes an expansionist worldview for the rights of the fittest race and re-enacts through the cult of the Mongolian animalistic spirit the colonization of the ethnic other with ecological fascism in the logic of the market law.
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Notes
- 1.
A shorter version of this chapter has formerly appeared online as the author’s book review of Wolf Totem (Apr. 2009), Modern Chinese Literature and Culture Resource Center, http://u.osu.edu/mclc/book-reviews/wolf-totem/ (last accessed 6 May 2018). I thank Chong Cho Ting 莊楚婷 for some Chinese references.
See, for example, Lucian T. H. Hsu 徐子軒, “Cong Lang tuteng dao Zhanlang de Zhongguo shidai” 從狼圖騰到戰狼的中國世代 (The Chinese generation of Wolf Totem and Wolf Warrior), Pingguo xinwen 蘋果新聞 (Apple Daily), 11 Aug. 2017, https://hk.news.appledaily.com/local/daily/article/20170811/20117967 (last accessed 20 Sept. 2018). The films are about a Chinese special force soldier confronted by a group of foreign mercenaries and the eventual victory of the People’s Liberation Army at home and abroad, namely, Africa. Prior to Wolf Warrior, Wu Jing has acted in Sha po lang 殺破狼 (Kill Zone, 2005) and Sha po lang 2 (2015) and co-directed Lang ya 狼牙 (Legendary Assassin, 2008) with Nicky Chung Chi Li 李忠志, but the three are police stories, not patriotic thrillers.
- 2.
Yuval Noah Harari, Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind (2011; New York: HarperCollins, 2015), 283–86, 379.
- 3.
Ibid., 77.
- 4.
Adam Trexler, Anthropocene Fictions: The Novel in a Time of Climate Change (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2015), 1. The other possible dates include 1784, when James Watt’s invention of the steam engine marked the Industrial Revolution, and the 1950s with the increase in background radiation from nuclear tests during the Cold War.
- 5.
See, for example, Long Xingjian 龍行健 [Sun Yongli 孫永俐], Lang tuteng pipan 狼圖騰批判 (Critique of Wolf Totem) (Shanghai: Xuelin chubanshe, 2007), 59–63, 91–95, 207–208. Chinese translation of The Da Vinci Code was published by Shanghai renmin chubanshe in February 2004; Lang tuteng appeared only two months later.
- 6.
See, for example, Yu Fan 凡禹 and Song Hongjie 宋洪潔, eds., Langdao da quanji: Qiangzhe de chenggong faze 狼道大全集:强者的成功法則 (The way of wolf: The rules of success) (Shanghai: Lixin kuaiji chubanshe, 2010).
- 7.
Jiang Rong, Lang tuteng (Wuhan: Changjiang wenyi chubanshe, 2004), 371; Howard Goldblatt, trans., Wolf Totem (New York: Penguin Books, 2008), 521. Page numbers are hereafter noted parenthetically at the end of each quotation.
- 8.
Haiyan Lee, “The Lord of the Wolves?” (19 June 2008), The China Beat, http://thechinabeat.blogspot.com/2008/06/lord-of-wolves.html (last accessed 6 May 2018).
- 9.
It is questionable whether wolf is the (only) totem of the Mongols. The strongest denial comes from Mongolian writer Guo Xuebo 郭雪波 who, in his Sina blog including a 2007 postscript to his Langhai 狼孩 (Wolf child), a revised edition of his 2001 novel Damo langhai 大漠狼孩 (Wolf child in the desert), and an open letter to the Publicity Department dated 16 Feb. 2015, http://blog.sina.cn/dpool/blog/s/blog_4dcda3030102va7m.html?tj=2?tj=2 (last accessed 21 Sept. 2018), accuses Wolf Totem and its film adaptation for forging Mongolian history and culture, and claims that Jiang Rong has asked for a copy of Damo langhai, a work of ecoliterature, and appropriated his idea of ecoculture. He also suggests that desertification is caused by centuries of cultivation, not extermination of wolf, and that other factors are mining, oil drilling, and global warming. Meanwhile, Xuezhu 雪竹 reports multiple totems, including wolf, horse, eagle, swan, dragon, deer, and bear, among different Mongolian tribes in “Mongguren de tuteng chongbai wenhua” 蒙古人的圖騰崇拜文化 (The culture of totem worships among the Mongols), Nei Menggu chenbao 内蒙古晨報 (Inner Mongolia morning post), 2 Apr. 2010, http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2010-04-02/081017313978s.shtml?from=wap (last accessed 21 Sept. 2018).
- 10.
Tim Cope, who mentioned Wolf Totem in his book, has pointed out that Mongolians understand wolf’s howls as prayers to the sky god Tengri. See Cope, On the Trail of Genghis Khan: An Epic Journey through the Land of the Nomads (London: Bloomsbury, 2014), e-book, https://books.google.com.hk/books?isbn=1408839881 (last accessed 15 Sept. 2018).
- 11.
Jiang 85; Igor de Rachewiltz, trans. and comm., The Secret History of the Mongols: A Mongolian Epic Chronicle of the Thirteenth Century, 2 vols. (Leiden: Brill Academic Pub, 2006), 1:1.
- 12.
The translator reveals that it was the publisher’s decision to excise the epigrammatic openings and the lengthy lecture in the epilogue, which I shall discuss below. See Michaela Kabat’s and Paul Pennay’s interview with Howard Goldblatt, “Beijing Bookworm International Literary Festival—Howard Goldblatt and Wolf Totem” (13 Mar. 2008), the Beijinger, http://www.thebeijinger.com/blog/2008/03/13/Beijing-Bookworm-International-Literary-Festival-Howard-Goldblatt-and-Wolf-Totem (last accessed 6 May 2018). This is yet another case of the publisher’s active role in the task of translation.
- 13.
For instance, in order to force Zhou-dynasty (1045–256 B.C.) history into his story, Jiang Rong (374) equates jackals with wolves in a sentence about King Wu’s (r. 1045–1043 B.C.) army cited from Sima Qian’s 司馬遷 (145-ca. 86 B.C.) Shi ji 史記 (The grand scribe’s records) (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1959), 4.123, without researching to discover that the original text in the extant version of Shang shu 尚書 (The book of documents) lists neither wolves nor jackals, but panthers.
- 14.
See the videos “Lang tuteng zhizuo teji zhi huanbao pian” 《狼圖騰》製作特輯之環保篇 (Making of Wolf Totem: Environmental protection) and “Lang tuteng teji zhi ‘Langwang shi zenyang liancheng de’” 《狼圖騰》特輯之“狼王是怎樣煉成的” (Special feature of Wolf Totem: How the wolf king was tempered) on Leshi shipin 樂視視頻, http://www.le.com/ptv/vplay/21288578.html#vid=21288578 and http://www.le.com/ptv/vplay/21578923.html#vid=21578923 (last accessed 28 Aug. 2018); see also the special feature of making of Wolf Totem, dir. Jean-Jacques Annaud, DVD (Hong Kong: Edko Films, [2015]). For Annaud’s depoliticization of the original through universalization of the ecological and the ethics of eco-filming, see Gong Haomin, “Transcendence and Transgression: Wolf Totem as Environmental World Literature/Cinema?” in Sheldon Lu and Haomin Gong, eds., Chinese-Language Ecocinema (London: Routledge, forthcoming). I thank Gong for sharing his manuscript with me before its publication.
- 15.
Li Jianjun, introduction to Long, Lang tuteng pipan, ii-iii. Li describes Wolf Totem as “anti-humanism, anti-civilization.”
- 16.
Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1939), 229; J[oseph] Stalin, “The Tasks of Business Executives,” in his Problems of Leninism (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1947), 356.
- 17.
Erich Fromm, To Have or to Be? (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), 81, where he continues in a contrast with sein “to be”: “In the being mode it lies in loving, sharing, giving.”
- 18.
See the American Nazi Party’s webpage, http://www.americannaziparty.com/platform/index.php (last accessed 6 May 2018). I thank Caroline Barth, my honours seminar student at Wittenberg University, for the reference.
- 19.
See Long, Lang tuteng pipan, 227; interview with Wolfgang Kubin, “Deguo Hanxue quanwei ling yi zhi yan kan xiandangdai Zhongguo wenxue” 德國漢學權威另一隻眼看現當代中國文学 (Authoritative German Sinologist looks at modern and contemporary Chinese literature with a different eye) (26 Nov. 2006), Deutsche Welle, Chinese edn., http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,2249278,00.html (last accessed 6 May 2018), listed under “Wenxue yishu” 文學藝術 (Literature & art); English translation by Priest Liu, “Wolfgang Kubin on Contemporary Chinese Literature,” can be accessed at EastSouthWestNorth Culture Blog, http://zonaeuropa.com/culture/c20061214_1.htm (last accessed 6 May 2018); also Linda Jaivin, review of Wolf Totem, Australian Literary Review, 7 May 2008; republished with an introduction by Geremie R. Barmé at Danwei, http://www.danwei.org/china_books/lupine_lactose_intolerant.php (last accessed 6 May 2018). Kubin’s view is followed by Arif Dirlik who, in his “Back to the Future: Contemporary China in the Perspective of Its Past, circa 1980,” boundary 2 38.1 (2011): 49–50, situates Jiang Rong’s “militaristic strains” in the Chinese “economic and political integration into global capitalism” and relates the Nazi statism to the “preoccupation with the sovereignty of the nation-state over both social problems and social relations” in China.
- 20.
Benito Mussolini, “The Doctrine of Fascism,” trans. I. S. Munro (1933), in Readings on Fascism and National Socialism, ed. Department of Philosophy, University of Colorado (Athens, Ohio: Swallow Press, 1952), 8, 15.
- 21.
Song Qiang 宋强 et al., Zhongguo keyi shuo bu—Lengzhan hou shidai de zhengzhi yu qinggan jueze 中國可以說不——冷戰後時代的政治與情感抉擇 (The China that can say no: Political and emotional choices in the post-cold-war era) (Beijing: Zhonghua gongshang lianhe chubanshe, 1996).
- 22.
Li Xiaojiang 李小江, Preface to Hou wutuobang piping: Lang tuteng shendu quanshi 後烏托邦批評:《狼圖騰》深度詮釋 (Post-utopian criticism: A penetrating interpretation of Wolf Totem), rev. ed. (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 2013), 6, 8–9; Edward Mansfield Gunn, Jr., trans., Wolf Totem and the Post-Mao Utopian: A Chinese Perspective on Contemporary Western Scholarship (Leiden: Brill Academic Pub, 2018), XIV, XVI–XVII. Note that the nearly 600-page English translation is co-funded by the original Chinese publishing company and the official Shanghai Culture Development Foundation.
- 23.
Li, Hou wutuobang piping, 406; Gunn, Wolf Totem and the Post-Mao Utopian, 412; emphases added.
- 24.
Li, Hou wutuobang piping, 495, 506; Gunn, Wolf Totem and the Post-Mao Utopian, 500, 512.
- 25.
Li, Hou wutuobang piping, 276; Gunn, Wolf Totem and the Post-Mao Utopian, 278. Karen Laura Thornber, Ecoambiguity: Environmental Crises and East Asian Literatures (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2012), 312.
- 26.
Li, Hou wutuobang piping, 545, 549; Gunn, Wolf Totem and the Post-Mao Utopian, 552, 556.
- 27.
Li, Hou wutuobang piping, 556; Gunn, Wolf Totem and the Post-Mao Utopian, 563, 565. The “Chinese dream” or “China Dream” was put forward by Xi in Nov. 2012 and again in May 2013, a few years after the 2008 Beijing Olympics slogan tong yi ge shijie, tong yi ge mengxiang 同一個世界,同一個夢想 “One World, One Dream,” for the “great rejuvenation [weida fuxing 偉大復興] of the Chinese nation.” The propaganda has aroused Western media’s fear of China’s “aggressive course of bullying its neighbors and confronting the United States” with its recent naval expansion and intensified territorial claims, as a writer of The New York Times portrays Xi: “his nationalism is proactive, riding the high road of patriotism and pride.” See Yang Yi, “Youth Urged to Contribute to Realization of ‘Chinese dream’,” Global Times, 5 May 2013, http://www.globaltimes.cn/content/779169.shtml (last accessed 21 Sept. 2018); and Robert Lawrence Kuhn, “Xi Jinping’s Chinese Dream,” The New York Times, 4 June 2013, https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/05/opinion/global/xi-jinpings-chinese-dream.html (last accessed 21 Sept. 2018). Numerous articles and about ten books in English on the subject have been published, including Liu Mingfu’s 刘明福 China Dream: Great Power Thinking and Strategic Posture in the Post-American Era (New York: CN Times Books, Inc., 2015), Steven W. Mosher’s Bully of Asia: Why China’s Dream is the New Threat to World Order (Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, 2017), and fictionist Ma Jian’s 馬建 China Dream (New York: Random House, 2018).
- 28.
Li, Preface to Hou wutuobang piping, 5; Gunn, Wolf Totem and the Post-Mao Utopian, XIII; Xue Xiaolin 薛曉林, Heng Qingjuan 衡慶娟, and Li Lingwan 李鈴婉, “Lang tuteng yu Bai ya zhong de shengtai sixiang zhi bijiao yanjiu” 《狼圖騰》與《白牙》中的生態思想之比較研究 (A comparative study of ecocriticism in Wolf Totem and White Fang), Zuojia 作家 (Writer), 2012, no. 6: 119–120; Wu Xiuming 吳秀明 and Chen Lijun 陈力君, “Cong Lang tuteng kan dangdai shengtai wenxue de fazhan” 從《狼圖騰》看當代生態文學的發展 (The development of contemporary eco-literature: A case study of Wolf Totem), Wenyi yanjiu 文藝研究 (Literature & Art Studies), 2009, no. 4: 25–29; and Wang Gaowa 王高娃, “Lun Menggu wenxue shengtai zhuti ji shenmei” 論蒙古文學生態主題及審美 (On the theme and aesthetics of ecology in Mongolian literature), Zuojia, 2014, no. 2: 44–45. Zhu Yanhong 朱妍红, in her “The Human and the Beast: Humanity, Animality, and Cultural Critique in Contemporary Chinese Cinema,” Chinese Literature Today 7.1 (2018): 107–117, argues that while the original novel can be read through the Deleuzian lens of “becoming-animal,” the film adaptation has challenged the anthropocentric human-animal divide by granting agency to animals. Thanks to Wang Zhuoyi 王卓异 for the last reference after my presentation of this paper, in which I also adopted Deleuze’s and Guattari’s idea of becoming (see the rest of this chapter below), at the conference of Ecowriting: Tradition and Modernity, Lingnan University, 16–17 Mar. 2019.
- 29.
Chen Hong, “Further Questions about the Ecological Themes of Wolf Totem,” ISLE: Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment 23.4 (Nov. 2016): 767.
- 30.
Nicole E. Barnes, “Coming Distractions: Wolf Totem” (24 Mar. 2008), The China Beat, http://thechinabeat.blogspot.com/2008/03/coming-distractions-wolf-totem.html (last accessed 6 May 2018).
- 31.
Trexler, Anthropocene Fictions, 121.
- 32.
Gong, “Transcendence and Transgression,” manuscript.
- 33.
Stevan Harrell, “Introduction: Civilizing Projects and the Reaction to Them,” in Cultural Encounters on China’s Ethnic Frontiers, ed. Harrell (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995), 9–27. The third civilizing project, according to Harrell, is the Christian missionaries’ project from the West.
- 34.
Lin Yü-sheng, The Crisis of Chinese Consciousness: Radical Antitraditionalism in the May Fourth Era (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1979).
- 35.
Long, Lang tuteng pipan, 28, 215–246. There are sections discussing Confucianism in Long’s book, pp. 106–128, which are unfortunately too shallow and full of pitfalls in their understanding of the Confucian traditions and teachings.
- 36.
Eric Abrahamsen, “Translation Course: Jiang Rong vs Howard Goldblatt” (28 Mar. 2008), Paper Republic, http://paper-republic.org/ericabrahamsen/translation-course-jiang-rong-vs-howard-goldblatt/ (last accessed 6 May 2018). Ruth Y. Y. Hung 洪如蕊, in her forthcoming paper “Against Allegory: For the Wolves in Wolf Totem,” 24, describes Jiang Rong’s grievance as “an unreflective insistence.”). I thank Hung for sending me her manuscript after her presentation at Hong Kong Baptist University on 5 Nov. 2018.
- 37.
Agnieszka Joniak-Lüthi, The Han: China’s Diverse Majority (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2015).
- 38.
Gong Haomin, in his “Transcendence and Transgression,” concludes that such sympathy can “become destructive” when universalized nature is displaced by transgressive ideologies.
- 39.
It became a calamity in the late 1950s when Mao misread ren ding sheng tian, a phrase originally from the Lüshi chunqiu 吕氏春秋 (Spring and autumn annals of Lü Buwei 吕不韋 [290–235 B.C.]): tian ding ze sheng ren, ren ding ze sheng tian 天定則勝人, 人定則勝天 “When heaven settles, it surpasses man; when man settles, they surpass heaven,” in which the word ding is not the adverb “must” and does not mean to fight nature. Yet, Mao misinterpreted it for the purpose of promoting “people’s commune,” resulting in the 1959–61 great famine known officially as the three-year “natural disaster.” This is a case where a leader abuses his political power to distort language out of context and casts a negative impact on both the nation and nature. Interestingly, the classical sentence is immediately followed by another one related to our subject: gu lang zhong ze shi ren, ren zhong ze shi lang 故狼眾則食人, 人眾則食狼 “therefore, when wolves outnumber men, men are to be eaten; when men outnumber wolves, wolves are to be eaten,” which seemingly tells of the “grassland logic” of the distinction between eater and eaten.
- 40.
Historian Timothy Weston, in his “A Defense of Jiang Rong’s Wolf Totem” (25 July 2008), The China Beat, http://thechinabeat.blogspot.com/2008/07/defense-of-jiang-rongs-wolf-totem.html (last accessed 6 May 2018), draws a close parallel between Han Chinese ignorance about the natural environment and their arrogance towards minority cultures but argues that they are not irredeemable: “Ethnicity is not treated in an essentialist fashion in this novel.” While it is true in Weston’s observation that there are indeed a few “good” Han Chinese like the protagonist and “bad” Mongols who are insensitive to the environment, the problem of Jiang Rong’s environmental ethnography remains: the Han would not become a “good ethnic group” unless they are Mongolianized, nor would some Mongols degenerate into a “bad ethnic group” were they not Sinicized.
- 41.
Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, Kafka: Toward a Minor Literature, trans. Dana Polan (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986), 22.
- 42.
Lily Kuo and Niko Kommenda, “What is China’s Belt and Road Initiative?” The Guardian, 30 July 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/cities/ng-interactive/2018/jul/30/what-china-belt-road-initiative-silk-road-explainer (last accessed 17 Sept. 2018). I describe Belt and Road as “expansionist” especially when it becomes “debt-trap diplomacy” in exchange for disputed territories, such as that of Tajikistan, and overseas military presence, for example, the Chinese People’s Liberation Army Support base in Djibouti.
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Choy, H.Y.F. (2019). Expansionist Ethnic Ecology: On Reading Jiang Rong’s Wolf Totem. In: Lo, KC., Yeung, J. (eds) Chinese Shock of the Anthropocene. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6685-7_7
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