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The Marginalization of Slavery in International Criminal Justice: Untapping Its Potential in the Fight Against Modern Slavery

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Contemporary International Criminal Law Issues

Abstract

This chapter explores the role international criminal justice can and should play in the fight against modern slavery. It argues that slavery is not an alien concept in international criminal justice, on the contrary, slave-trading counts among the first international crimes and lies at the origins of the emergence of international criminal law. Section 10.1 briefly outlines its historical, social, and broader legal context, setting into perspective the dual role that international law has played in the history of slavery as a facilitator and only for the last two hundred years as a remedy against it. Despite achieving peremptory status and the complex legal and policy framework to prevent, criminalize and punish slavery crimes, these practices persist and even thrive in many countries. Section 10.2 aims to discuss why the international crimes of slavery remain underutilized and whether international criminal law is fit for purpose to respond effectively to the contemporary forms of slavery which are widespread today. Section 10.3 sets out a few strategies through which international criminal justice actors along with other interlocutors can significantly contribute to broader efforts in the global fight against contemporary forms of slavery. Finally, in Sect. 10.4, this chapter argues that while slavery remains one of the least prosecuted international crimes, international justice actors can and should play a greater role as part of a larger effort to fight modern slavery.

Humanity is something that we still need to humanize

–Mistral 2021.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Westbrook and Cohen 2002.

  2. 2.

    Al Attar 2021.

  3. 3.

    Anghie 2005.

  4. 4.

    Allain 2021.

  5. 5.

    Stahn 2020.

  6. 6.

    According to the classic estimate by Eltisthe, the Dutch Republic would have been the fifth largest trader in slaves after Portugal (5.8 million), Great Britain (3.3 million), France (1.4 million) and Spain (1.1 million). Fatah-Black and van Rossum 2014, p. 5.

  7. 7.

    Obregón 2018.

  8. 8.

    Cottias 2019.

  9. 9.

    Martínez 2012.

  10. 10.

    Koskenniemi 2011a.

  11. 11.

    Allain 2021. See also Cairns 2001.

  12. 12.

    Ajala 2013.

  13. 13.

    Caldeira 2011.

  14. 14.

    United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2012.

  15. 15.

    Miller 1981.

  16. 16.

    Scheidler 2020. Other data-driven estimate a death toll of 56 million by the beginning of the 1600s—90% of the pre-Columbian Indigenous population and around 10% of the global population at the time causing a drop in atmospheric CO2 that cooled the planet. See further: Koch et al. 2019.

  17. 17.

    Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and racial intolerance 2019, UN Doc. A/74/321, para 18.

  18. 18.

    Scheidler 2020, pp. 189, 207, 249. See also Tzouvala 2020.

  19. 19.

    Tzouvala 2021.

  20. 20.

    Koskenniemi 2011b.

  21. 21.

    Ibid., p. 417.

  22. 22.

    Scheidler 2020.

  23. 23.

    Domínguez and Luoma 2020.

  24. 24.

    Yeager 1995.

  25. 25.

    Restall 2020.

  26. 26.

    Known in Spanish as “La Leyenda Negra”. See Livi-Bacci 2006.

  27. 27.

    Scheidler 2020, p. 114.

  28. 28.

    Kehinde 2021.

  29. 29.

    Pablo González Casanova coined the concept of “internal colonialism”. Scholars such as the Bolivian Aymaran sociologist Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui have further developed this concept in contemporary Latin American thought, adding a cultural and social dimension. See Casanova 1963. See also Rivera Cusicanqui 2017.

  30. 30.

    Obregón 2018.

  31. 31.

    Ogle 2020.

  32. 32.

    Kelly 2009.

  33. 33.

    Anghie 2017.

  34. 34.

    Ibid., p. 13.

  35. 35.

    Michael 2020.

  36. 36.

    Trouillot 1995.

  37. 37.

    Greggus 1989.

  38. 38.

    According to historian Emilia Viotti da Costa, 40% of the 10 million African slaves brought to the New World came to Brazil, that is 10 times more than all those sent to the United States. For estimates, see the Slave Voyages (undated) www.slavevoyages.org. Accessed 20 March 2021.

  39. 39.

    Kehinde 2021, p. 206.

  40. 40.

    Diptee 2018.

  41. 41.

    Al Attar 2021.

  42. 42.

    Anghie 2017.

  43. 43.

    Miers 1998. See also Hochschild 1999.

  44. 44.

    Ralph 1997.

  45. 45.

    Frankema et al. 2018. See also Wesseling 1996.

  46. 46.

    Baptist 2014.

  47. 47.

    Bravo 2010.

  48. 48.

    Gross and Thomas 2016.

  49. 49.

    Quirk 2009.

  50. 50.

    Brown 2019.

  51. 51.

    Césaire and Kelley 2000.

  52. 52.

    Today, the proscription of the slave trade exists as a peremptory norm, a crime under customary international law, a prohibition under international humanitarian law, and a non-derogable human right. See Viseur Sellers and Getgen Kestenbaum 2020a.

  53. 53.

    International Labour Office (2017) https://www.ilo.org/global/publications/books/WCMS_575479/lang--en/index.htm. Accessed 2 August 2021.

  54. 54.

    Cockayne et al. 2016.

  55. 55.

    Ibid.

  56. 56.

    Banerjee 2021.

  57. 57.

    Of the 24.9 million victims of forced labour in 2016, 16 million were in the private sector, another 4.8 million were in forced sexual exploitation, and 4.1 million were in forced labour imposed by State authorities. International Labour Organization 2017; Webb and Garciandia 2019, p. 541.

  58. 58.

    Liechtenstein Initiative 2019, p. 40.

  59. 59.

    Bales 2012.

  60. 60.

    International Labor Organization 2014.

  61. 61.

    Al Attar 2021.

  62. 62.

    Banerjee 2021.

  63. 63.

    UN Human Rights Council 2019.

  64. 64.

    Drumbl 2005, p. 545. See also Tallgren 2002.

  65. 65.

    Krever 2013, p. 703.

  66. 66.

    Viseur Sellers and Getgen Kestenbaum 2020a.

  67. 67.

    Ibid., p. 532. See further Siller 2016.

  68. 68.

    Anti-slavery in domestic legislation: https://antislaverylaw.ac.uk/. Accessed 2 August 2021.

  69. 69.

    UN Human Rights Council 2019, para 25.

  70. 70.

    Tolbert and Smith 2016.

  71. 71.

    As Helen Duffy noted in Hadijatou Mani’s case: “Niger’s Constitution prohibits slavery. The Nigerian Criminal Code was amended in 2003 to make slavery a crime, and as a matter of law serious penalties attach to this crime. However, prosecutions for slavery are not pursued in practice”. The author further noted that Mani’s case was not an isolated one, but emblematic of a pervasive phenomenon affecting over 40 thousand persons in Niger alone. Duffy 2009.

  72. 72.

    Anghie 2017.

  73. 73.

    See e.g., Prosecutor v Dragan Nikolic, Judgment on Sentencing Appeal, 4 February 2005, ICTY-94-2-a, para 45 citing Prosecutor v Stevan Todorovic, Sentencing Judgment, 31 July 2001, IT-95-9/1-S, para 30 (‘the penalties imposed by the International Tribunal must…have sufficient deterrent value to ensure that those who would consider committing similar crimes will be dissuaded from doing so’). See also Drumbl 2007.

  74. 74.

    Bhoola and Panaccione 2016.

  75. 75.

    United Nations, Human Rights Council 2016, paras 55, 75.

  76. 76.

    Cockayne 2016.

  77. 77.

    The legal definition of the Rome Statute is based on the definition of the Slavery Convention of 1926 and the Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery of 1956, according to which the so-called contemporary forms of slavery (servitude, servile marriage, debt bondage, forced labour as well as trafficking in persons) can be regarded as slavery if these acts pass the threshold of exercising ‘the powers attaching to the right of ownership’.

  78. 78.

    Under the Rome Statute, the Crime against humanity of enslavement is defined as the exercise of any or all of the powers attaching to the right of ownership over a person and includes the exercise of such power in the course of trafficking in persons, in particular women and children.

  79. 79.

    Jessberger 2016, p 332. See Element of Crimes for Article 7(1)(c) ICC St., fn 11: It is understood that such deprivation of liberty may, in some circumstances, include exacting forced labor or otherwise reducing a person to a servile status as defined in the Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery of 1956. It is also understood that the conduct described in this element includes trafficking in persons, in particular women and children. The same footnotes appear in relation to the elements of sexual slavery as a crime against humanity and a war crime under Articles 7(1)(g), 8(b)(xxii), and 8(2)(e)(vi).

  80. 80.

    Bhoola and Panaccione 2016.

  81. 81.

    van der Wilt 2016.

  82. 82.

    The Queen v Tang, 28 August 2008, HCA 39.

  83. 83.

    van der Wilt 2016, p. 270.

  84. 84.

    Ibid., p. 269.

  85. 85.

    Viseur Sellers and Getgen Kestenbaum 2020b.

  86. 86.

    Kunarac et al., Appeal Judgment, 12 June 2002, IT-96-23 & IT-96-23/1-A (‘Kunarac Appeal Judgment’), para 117.

  87. 87.

    van der Wilt 2016, p. 276.

  88. 88.

    Jessberger 2016, p. 332.

  89. 89.

    Viseur Sellers and Getgen Kestenbaum 2020b, p. 5 citing Ministère Public v. Hissène Habré, Judgment 30 May 2016, paras 1490–1491.

  90. 90.

    Ibid., The Prosecutor v Hisènne Habré Trial Judgment, 24 March 2017, paras 1494–95.

  91. 91.

    Viseur Sellers and Getgen Kestenbaum 2020b, p. 11.

  92. 92.

    Ibid., p. 2.

  93. 93.

    Ibid., p. 10.

  94. 94.

    Ibid.

  95. 95.

    Ibid., p. 16.

  96. 96.

    Corrie 2016.

  97. 97.

    See Katanga and Ngudjolo Chui, Decision on the Confirmation of Charges, 30 September 2008, ICC-01/04-01/07-717, para 433 (‘Katanga and Ngudjolo Chui’).

  98. 98.

    van der Wilt 2016, p. 277. See also Oosterveld 2004.

  99. 99.

    ICC (2021) https://www.icc-cpi.int/news/dominic-ongwen-declared-guilty-war-crimes-and-crimes-against-humanity-committed-uganda. Accessed 2 August 2021.

  100. 100.

    Viseur Sellers and Getgen Kestenbaum 2021. See also Viseur Sellers and Getgen Kestenbaum 2020a.

  101. 101.

    ICC Office of the Prosecutor (2014) https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/iccdocs/otp/OTP-Policy-Paper-on-Sexual-and-Gender-Based-Crimes--June-2014.pdf. Accessed 2 August 2021.

  102. 102.

    Tolbert and Smith 2016, pp. 429–430.

  103. 103.

    Addis 2009.

  104. 104.

    During the last 15 years over 43 countries have become involved in the prosecutions of perpetrators of international crimes. More than 10,000 perpetrators have been brought to justice in such countries. Bergsmo 2010, p. 80. See also Langer and Eason 2019.

  105. 105.

    Kather 2021.

  106. 106.

    van der Wilt 2016, p. 283. Boister 2012.

  107. 107.

    Report of the International, Impartial and Independent Mechanism to Assist in the Investigation and Prosecution of Persons Responsible for the Most Serious Crimes under International Law Committed in the Syrian Arab Republic 2018, A/72/764, p. 6, para 12.

  108. 108.

    International Center for Transitional Justice (2021) https://www.ictj.org/sites/default/files/ICTJ_Report_CAR_EN.pdf. Accessed 29 July 2021.

  109. 109.

    Duffy 2009, p. 164.

  110. 110.

    Fraser and Leyh 2019.

  111. 111.

    Ibid., p. 56.

  112. 112.

    Ibid., p. 54.

  113. 113.

    Regional human rights mechanism may offer an important avenue for litigation of slaver and slavery-like practices. See further Duffy 2016.

  114. 114.

    Ibid., p. 392.

  115. 115.

    Fraser and Leyh 2019, p. 58.

  116. 116.

    Cockayne 2015, p. 4.

  117. 117.

    United Nations General Assembly (2017), p. 10, para 32. https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N17/216/32/PDF/N1721632.pdf?OpenElement. Accessed 2 August 2021.

  118. 118.

    Liechtenstein Initiative 2019.

  119. 119.

    Obokata (2020), p. 13, para 52. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3878470?ln=fr. Accessed 2 August 2021.

  120. 120.

    Fraser and Leyh 2019, p. 58 citing Waldorf 2012.

  121. 121.

    Dranginis 2019 p. 26.

  122. 122.

    Ibid.

  123. 123.

    International Council on Human Rights Policy 2002, p. 159.

  124. 124.

    Mehra and Shay 2016.

  125. 125.

    Cockayne et al. 2016.

  126. 126.

    Anghie 2017, p. 12.

  127. 127.

    Bales 2000, p. 462.

  128. 128.

    Ibid., p. 472.

  129. 129.

    Women and girls are disproportionately affected by modern slavery, with over 71% of victims being female. UN Human Rights Council 2019.

  130. 130.

    Cockayne et al. 2016.

  131. 131.

    Stahn 2020.

  132. 132.

    On the anniversary of the abolition of slavery, nearly 200 years ago, in a landmark decision, the General Assembly on 2 August 2021 established a 10-member subsidiary organ that will serve as a standing forum to hear the voices of people of African descent and help eliminate all forms of discrimination against them. The creation of this forum represents a step in the right direction to uproot the systems of racial inequality resulting from centuries of discrimination, dispossession and enslavement. See United Nations (2021) https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N21/213/97/PDF/N2121397.pdf?OpenElement. Accessed 5 August 2021.

  133. 133.

    Al Attar (2021) http://opiniojuris.org/2021/03/03/subverting-racism-in-international-law-scholarship/. Accessed 5 August 2021.

  134. 134.

    Anghie 2017, p. 13.

  135. 135.

    Ibid., p. 23.

  136. 136.

    By the way of analogy and in the words of Ursula K. Le Guin: “We live in capitalism, its power seems inescapable—but then, so did the divine right of kings. Any human power can be resisted and changed by human beings. Ursula K. Le Guin (2014) https://www.ursulakleguin.com/nbf-medal. Accessed 5 August 2021.

  137. 137.

    Anghie 2017, p. 22.

  138. 138.

    Bales 2012, p. 484.

  139. 139.

    Ibid.

  140. 140.

    Barcelona Traction, Judgment, ICJ Reports 1970, paras 33–34. See also Mme Hadijatou Mani Koraou v The Republic of Niger, 27 October 2008, ECW/CCJ/JUD/06/08.

  141. 141.

    By way of illustration, at the time of writing, the 1948 Genocide Convention has 152 parties, the four 1949 Conventions have been ratified by 196 states and the Rome Statute has 123 states parties.

  142. 142.

    Bales 2012, p. 484.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. International Criminal Court, The Hague, The Netherlands

    Vanessa Hernández Soto

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  1. Vanessa Hernández Soto
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Correspondence to Vanessa Hernández Soto .

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  1. Arusha, Tanzania

    Takeh B. K. Sendze

  2. Centre for African Justice, Peace and Human Rights, The Hague, The Netherlands

    Adesola Adeboyejo

  3. Doughty Street Chambers, London, UK

    Howard Morrison

  4. Centre for African Justice, Peace and Human Rights, The Hague, The Netherlands

    Sophia Ugwu

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Hernández Soto, V. (2023). The Marginalization of Slavery in International Criminal Justice: Untapping Its Potential in the Fight Against Modern Slavery. In: Sendze, T.B.K., Adeboyejo, A., Morrison, H., Ugwu, S. (eds) Contemporary International Criminal Law Issues. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-555-3_10

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