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The Role of Intergovernmental Agencies in the Prevention of Human Rights Risk in the Aftermath of the 1998–2000 Conflict

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The 1998–2000 Eritrea-Ethiopia War and Its Aftermath in International Legal Perspective

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Abstract

The Ethiopia-Eritrea border conflict of 1998–2000 confirmed the sad but true fact, recognised by the human rights law regime that permits derogations in times of emergencies including war, that one of the main casualties of any conflict is the human rights of the people caught up in it. As a consequence, intergovernmental institutions, including the African Union (AU) and the United Nations (UN), seek to promote the respect of human rights by managing and mitigating the real and potential human rights risks. Once the conflict officially came to an end in 2000 and it is expected that the full respect for all rights will be restored, the focus of human rights policy shifts from the battlefields to the regular activities of governments across the entire country. The unsettled ‘peace’ of the post-war transition, however, poses interesting challenges to the international organisations in their effort to guide and support the two governments’ transition from a militarised environment of the conflict to one based on the rule of law. This chapter analyses how effectively these agencies and mechanisms have navigated the complex process towards constitutional government. The evidence suggests contrasting outcomes with one country, Ethiopia, adjusting to the guidance from the international organisations whilst the other government in Eritrea struggling to do so. Whether the Joint Declaration of Peace and Friendship of 2018 between the two countries holds real promise to bridge the disparity in human rights risks between the two countries remains to be seen.

The author is Professor of Law at University of Notre Dame and Director of London Law Program.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and the two Additional Protocols of 1977.

  2. 2.

    Article 15 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, opened for signature on 16 December 1966, for example provides that:

    In time of public emergency which threatens the life of the nation and the existence of which is publicly proclaimed, the States Parties to the present Covenant may take measures derogating from their obligations under the present Covenant to the extent strictly required by the exigencies of the situation, provided that such measures are not inconsistent with their other obligations under international law and do not involve discrimination solely on the ground of race, colour, sex, language, religion or social origin.

    See Nowak 2005, p. 84. According to Nowak, the derogation opportunity is comparable to the individual right of self-defence, in addition to offering States a basis for avoiding exceptional, irreparable damage to the general public resulting from the emergency situation. See also Oraá 1992.

  3. 3.

    See Agreement on Cessation of Hostilities between the Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia and the Government of the State of Eritrea, signed in Algiers on 18 June 2000, https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4a54bbecd.pdf. Accessed 10 July 2020.

  4. 4.

    The text of the Agreement between the Government of the State of Eritrea and the Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, done at Algiers on 12 December 2000, is reproduced in Appendix A to this volume.

  5. 5.

    Joint Declaration of Peace and Friendship between Eritrea and Ethiopia, done in Asmara on 9 July 2018. The text of the Declaration is reproduced in Appendix A to this volume.

  6. 6.

    See de Guttry, Chap. 32.

  7. 7.

    See Addo 2009, p. 449.

  8. 8.

    See Kaikobad, Chap. 10.

  9. 9.

    See Greppi and Poli, Chap. 4.

  10. 10.

    See de Guttry, Chap. 5.

  11. 11.

    Derogations and wider margins of appreciation for States in the interpretation of permissible limitations.

  12. 12.

    With emphasis on the conflict, States tend to divert resources away from international activities that they perceive as less of a priority.

  13. 13.

    See above n 7.

  14. 14.

    The law concerning derogations in times of war follows this line of reasoning.

  15. 15.

    Article 24, Charter of the United Nations, 24 October 1945.

  16. 16.

    SC Res 1298 (2000), 17 May 2000, S/RES/1298, para 6.

  17. 17.

    Ibid.

  18. 18.

    See SC Res 2444 (2018), 14 November 2018, S/RES/2444.

  19. 19.

    Article 27(3) UN Charter (above n 15).

  20. 20.

    See extensively on UNMEE de Guttry, Chap. 5.

  21. 21.

    See OAU, Framework Agreement for a Peaceful Settlement of the Dispute between Eritrea and Ethiopia, 8 November 1998, https://www.peaceagreements.org/viewmasterdocument/471. Accessed 24 July 2020; Algiers Ceasefire Agreement (above n 3) para 3 ff.

  22. 22.

    SC, Letter dated 20 June 2000 from the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Eritrea addressed to the Secretary-General, 21 June 2000, S/2000/612.

  23. 23.

    SC, Letter dated 26 June 2000 from the Chargé d’affaires a.i. of the Permanent Mission of Ethiopia to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General, 27 June 2000, S/2000/627.

  24. 24.

    SC Res 1312 (2000), 31 July 2000, S/RES/1312.

  25. 25.

    SC Res 1320 (2000), 15 September 2000, S/RES/1320.

  26. 26.

    Ibid.

  27. 27.

    This refers to the jurisprudence and activities of the supervisory bodies established under a selection of UN human rights treaties identified as the core treaties. These include the Human Rights Committee established under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966); the Committee on the Rights of the Child, established under the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989); the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights set up under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966) and the Committee Against Torture under the Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment (1984). Here also it is important to recall other human rights bodies outside of the core treaty system including the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).

  28. 28.

    This refers to the specialised bodies of working groups, thematic and country rapporteurs appointed by and working under the auspices of the UN Human Rights Council. In relation to the conflict in Eritrea and Ethiopia the work of the Special Rapporteur on States of Emergency would have been of particular interest.

  29. 29.

    See above n 27.

  30. 30.

    Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD 2006) since 7 July 2014; Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict (CRC OP-1, 2000) since 14 May 2014 and the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography (CRC, Op-2 2000) since 25 May 2014.

  31. 31.

    Ethiopia is party to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR 1966) since 21 October 1991; the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR 1966) since 11 June 1993; the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW 1979) since 10 December 1981; the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC 1989), since 14 May 1991; the International Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (ICERD 1965), since 23 June 1976, and the Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT 1984) since 14 March 1994.

  32. 32.

    Eritrea has ratified the ICCPR on 22 January 2002; the ICESCR on 1 April 2001; CEDAW on 5 September 1995; ICERD on 31 July 2001 and CAT on 25 September 2014.

  33. 33.

    The CRC on 3 August 1994 and CEDAW on 10 September 1995.

  34. 34.

    The Human Rights Committee oversees the ICCPR; the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights oversees the treaty under that title; the Committee Against Torture, the Torture Convention; the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, the International Convention under that title; the Committee on the Rights of the Child oversees the CRC and the Committee on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination Against Women supervises proceedings under the Women’s Convention.

  35. 35.

    For details, see https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/treatybodyexternal/SessionDetails1.aspx?SessionID=101&Lang=en Accessed 10 July 2020.

  36. 36.

    In 2004, 2011 and 2019.

  37. 37.

    2010, 2011, and 2020.

  38. 38.

    2001, 2006 and 2015.

  39. 39.

    2010.

  40. 40.

    2012.

  41. 41.

    2009.

  42. 42.

    2018 and 2019.

  43. 43.

    2003, 2008 and 2015.

  44. 44.

    2006, 2015 and 2020.

  45. 45.

    CRC Committee, Initial Report of the State of Eritrea to the CRC, 23 December 2002, CRC/C/41/Add.12, paras 1–16.

  46. 46.

    CRC Committee, Second Periodic Report of Ethiopia to the Committee on the Rights of the Child, 23 March 2000, CRC/C/70/Add.7. For a clearer picture, this document should be read together with the Summary Record of the Constructive Dialogue between the Ethiopian delegation and the Committee, 15 November 2001, CRC/C/SR.675, and 18 January 2001, CRC/C/SR.676.

  47. 47.

    See in this regard the Summary Record of the 865th and 866th meetings of the 33rd Session of the Committee on the Rights of the Child, 17 June 2003, CRC/C/SR.865, and 2 June 2003, CRC/C/SR.866. Concerning the dialogue with Ethiopia, see CRC/C/SR.675 and CRC/C/ SR.676 (above n 46).

  48. 48.

    See, for Eritrea, CRC Committee, Concluding observations: Eritrea, 2 July 2003, CRC/C/15/Add.204. For Ethiopia, see CRC Committee, Concluding observations of the Committee on the Rights of the Child: Ethiopia, 21 February 2001, CRC/C/15/Add.v144.

  49. 49.

    CRC Concluding observations: Eritrea (above n 48) para 53.

  50. 50.

    Ibid., para 54.

  51. 51.

    Ibid., paras 61–62.

  52. 52.

    CRC Concluding observations: Ethiopia (above n 48) paras 10 and 68.

  53. 53.

    Ibid., para 69.

  54. 54.

    Ibid., para 30.

  55. 55.

    Ibid., para 78.

  56. 56.

    See CRC Committee, List of issues to be taken up in connection with the consideration of the third periodic report of Ethiopia, 23 June 2006, CRC/C/ETH/Q/3, para 3.

  57. 57.

    Ibid., para 10.

  58. 58.

    See CRC Committee, Concluding observations: Ethiopia, 1 November 2006, CRC/C/ETH/CO/3.

  59. 59.

    CRC Committee, National Report of Eritrea, 23 October 2007, CRC/C/ERI/3, para 320.

  60. 60.

    CRC Committee, Concluding Observations: Eritrea, 23 June 2008, CRC/C/ERI/CO/3, para 5.

  61. 61.

    Ibid., para 70.

  62. 62.

    See CRC Committee, Consideration of reports submitted by States parties under article 44 of the Convention: Eritrea, 2 January 2014, CRC/C/ERI/4, para 7.

  63. 63.

    See CRC Committee, Concluding observations on the fourth periodic report of Eritrea, 2 July 2015, CRC/C/ERI/CO/4.

  64. 64.

    Ibid., para 7.

  65. 65.

    Ibid., para 63.

  66. 66.

    Ibid.

  67. 67.

    CERD, Concluding observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: Ethiopia, 20 June 2007, CERD/C/ETH/CO/15, paras 5 and 18.

  68. 68.

    Ibid., paras 12 and 19.

  69. 69.

    Ibid., para 23.

  70. 70.

    See Human Rights Committee, Concluding observations on Eritrea in the absence of its initial report, 3 May 2019, CCPR/C/ERI/CO/1.

  71. 71.

    Ibid., para 5.

  72. 72.

    See GA Res 60/251, 3 April 2006, A/RES/60/251.

  73. 73.

    Ibid.

  74. 74.

    Ibid., para 5(e).

  75. 75.

    Human Rights Council Res 5/1, 7 August 2007, A/HRC/RES/5/1, para 3.

  76. 76.

    Human Rights Council, Ethiopia’s National Report under the Universal Periodic Review Mechanism, 4 August 2009, A/HRC/WG.6/6/ETH/1.

  77. 77.

    Ibid., para 4.

  78. 78.

    Human Rights Council, National Report Submitted in Accordance with para 15 (A) of the Annex to Human Rights Council Resolution 5/1: Eritrea, 26 November 2009, A/HRC/WG.6/6/ERI/1.

  79. 79.

    Ethiopia’s National Report—First Cycle UPR (above n 76) para 1.

  80. 80.

    Eritrea’s National Report—First Cycle UPR (above n 78) para 90.

  81. 81.

    See above n 31. Ethiopia had by this time ratified six core UN human rights treaties including CRC, CEDAW, CAT, ICCPR, ICESCR and ICERD before the conclusion of the conflict.

  82. 82.

    See Sect. 27.2.4 above.

  83. 83.

    See Human Rights Council, Compilation Prepared by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights: Ethiopia (OHCHR Compilation for Ethiopia—First Cycle), 18 September 2009, A/HRC/WG.6/6/ETH/2.

  84. 84.

    Ibid., para 28.

  85. 85.

    Ibid., para 30.

  86. 86.

    Ibid., para 35.

  87. 87.

    Ibid., para 36.

  88. 88.

    Advance Questions to Ethiopia by Germany, https://lib.ohchr.org/HRBodies/UPR/Documents/Session6/ET/ETHIOPIA.pdf. Accessed 10 July 2020.

  89. 89.

    Human Rights Council, Summary Prepared by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, in accordance with Para 15 (C) of the Annex to Human Rights Council Resolution 5/1: Ethiopia (CSO Compilation for Ethiopia – First Cycle), 22 September 2009, A/HRC/WG.6/6/ETH/3.

  90. 90.

    See Human Rights Council, Compilation prepared by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, in accordance with para 15(B) of the annex to Human Rights Council Resolution 5/1: Eritrea (OHCHR Compilation for Eritrea—First Cycle), 18 September 2009, A/HRC/WG.6/6/ERI/2, para 15.

  91. 91.

    Ibid., para 30.

  92. 92.

    Ibid., para 6.

  93. 93.

    See Human Rights Council, Summary prepared by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, in accordance with para 15 (C) of the annex to Human Rights Council Resolution 5/1: Eritrea (CSO Compilation for Eritrea—First Cycle), 15 September 2009, A/HRC/WG.6/6/ERI/3, para 3.

  94. 94.

    Ibid., para 2.

  95. 95.

    Ibid., para 17.

  96. 96.

    Ibid.

  97. 97.

    Ibid., para 45.

  98. 98.

    See Human Rights Council, Compilation prepared by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights in accordance with para 15 (b) of the annex to Human Rights Council resolution 5/1 and para 5 of the annex to Council resolution 16/21 (OHCHR Compilation for Ethiopia—Second Cycle), 12 February 2014, A/HRC/WG.6/19/ETH/2, para 24.

  99. 99.

    Ibid., para 25.

  100. 100.

    Ibid., para 37.

  101. 101.

    Human Rights Council, National report submitted in accordance with para 5 of the annex to Human Rights Council resolution 16/21: Eritrea, 8 November 2013, A/HRC/WG.6/18/ERI/1, para 91.

  102. 102.

    Ibid., para 92.

  103. 103.

    See Human Rights Council Res 20/20, 17 July 2012, A/HRC/RES/20/20.

  104. 104.

    See Human Rights Council, Compilation prepared by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights in accordance with para 15 (b) of the annex to Human Rights Council resolution 5/1 and para 5 of the annex to Council resolution 16/21: Eritrea (OHCHR Compilation for Eritrea—Second Cycle), 11 November 2013, A/HRC/WG.6/18/ERI/2, para 3.

  105. 105.

    Ibid., para 15.

  106. 106.

    Ibid., para 14.

  107. 107.

    Ibid., para 31.

  108. 108.

    Ibid., para 49.

  109. 109.

    Joint Declaration (above n 5).

  110. 110.

    See Human Rights Council, National report submitted in accordance with para 5 of the annex to Human Rights Council resolution 16/21: Ethiopia, 25 February 2019, A/HRC/WG.6/33/ETH/1, para 2.

  111. 111.

    Ibid., para 5.

  112. 112.

    Ibid., paras 13 and 14.

  113. 113.

    Ibid., para 39.

  114. 114.

    Ibid., para 133.

  115. 115.

    Human Rights Council, Summary of Stakeholders’ submissions on Eritrea, 7 November 2018, A/HRC/WG.6/32/ERI/3, para 23.

  116. 116.

    See https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/CoIEritrea/Pages/commissioninquiryonhrinEritrea.aspx. Accessed 10 July 2020.

  117. 117.

    It started with the Ad hoc Working Group of Experts on the Human Rights Situation in South Africa in 1967.

  118. 118.

    On this, see https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/SP/Pages/Welcomepage.aspx. Accessed 10 July 2020.

  119. 119.

    Ibid.

  120. 120.

    Ibid.

  121. 121.

    See Sect. 27.2.3 above.

  122. 122.

    See Human Rights Council, Facts and figures with regard to the special procedures in 2018, 18 March 2019, A/HRC/40/38/Add.1

  123. 123.

    Piccone 2011.

  124. 124.

    Ibid., p. 210.

  125. 125.

    Ibid., p. 214.

  126. 126.

    Ibid., pp. 214–215.

  127. 127.

    Ibid., p. 215.

  128. 128.

    The Special Rapporteur on Toxic Waste and the Special Rapporteur on Minority Issues. On this see https://spinternet.ohchr.org/ViewCountryVisits.aspx?visitType=all&country=ETH&Lang=en. Accessed 10 July 2020.

  129. 129.

    See https://spinternet.ohchr.org/ViewCountryVisits.aspx?visitType=all&country=ERI&Lang=en. Accessed 10 July 2020.

  130. 130.

    See Human Rights Council, Report of the independent expert on minority issues, Gay McDougall. Addendum, Mission to Ethiopia (28 November–12 December 2006), 28 February 2007, A/HRC/4/9/Add.3.

  131. 131.

    See Commission on Human Rights, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the right to food, Jean Ziegler. Addendum, Mission to Ethiopia, 8 February 2005, E/CN.4/2005/47/Add.1.

  132. 132.

    Ibid., para 7.

  133. 133.

    Ibid., paras 42–59.

  134. 134.

    Human Rights Council Res 20/20 (above n 103). See also https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/SP/CountriesMandates/ER/Pages/SREritrea.aspx. Accessed 10 July 2020.

  135. 135.

    See Report of Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, Sheila B. Keetharuth, 23rd Session of the Human Rights Council, 28 May 2013, A/HRC/23/53, and subsequent reports.

  136. 136.

    Ibid., paras 43–94.

  137. 137.

    Ibid.

  138. 138.

    Ibid.

  139. 139.

    Ibid., para 95.

  140. 140.

    Ibid., para 96.

  141. 141.

    See Human Rights Council Res 23/21, 25 June 2013, A/HRC/Res/23/21.

  142. 142.

    Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in Eritrea, 26th Session of the Human Rights Council, 13 May 2014, A/HRC/26/45.

  143. 143.

    For details of these reports, see https://www.ohchr.org/EN/countries/AfricaRegion/Pages/ERIndex.aspx. Accessed 10 July 2020.

  144. 144.

    Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in Eritrea 2014 (above n 142) para 99.

  145. 145.

    Ibid., para 100.

  146. 146.

    Human Rights Council Res 26/24, 14 July 2014, A/HRC/RES/26/24.

  147. 147.

    Ibid., paras 7 and 8.

  148. 148.

    Human Rights Council, Report of the Detailed Findings of the Commission of Inquiry into Human Rights in Eritrea, 5 June 2015, A/HRC/29/CRP.1.

  149. 149.

    Ibid., paras 12–23.

  150. 150.

    Ibid., para 10.

  151. 151.

    Ibid., para 26 ff.

  152. 152.

    Ibid., para 340.

  153. 153.

    Ibid., para 1507.

  154. 154.

    In its first pre-hearing decision, the Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission undertook to work in harmony with the overall institutional structure established by the Agreement that settled the ceasefire between the parties (Algiers Peace Agreement of 12 December 2000). See Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission, Decision Number 1: The Commission’s Mandate/Temporal Scope of Jurisdiction, August 2001, PCA Case No. 2001-02.

  155. 155.

    Algiers Agreement (above n 4) Article 3(1).

  156. 156.

    Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission, Decision Regarding Delimitation of the Border between the State of Eritrea and the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 13 April 2002, PCA Case No. 2001-01.

  157. 157.

    Algiers Agreement (above n 4) Article 4.

  158. 158.

    Decision Number 1 2001 (above n 154).

  159. 159.

    On this, see Kaikobad, Chap. 10, and Odello, Chap. 11.

  160. 160.

    Malcolm Shaw has argued that the Commission’s combined mandate to delimit and demarcate the border is unusual and could very well place the Commission in a vulnerable position with the contending parties. See Shaw 2007, p. 757.

  161. 161.

    Algiers Agreement (above n 4) Article 4(14).

  162. 162.

    Algiers Agreement (above n 4) Article 4(15).

  163. 163.

    See Delimitation Decision 2002 (above n 156). See also Odello, Chap. 11.

  164. 164.

    Request for Interpretation, Correction and Consultation, submitted by the Federal Republic of Ethiopia on 13 May 2002.

  165. 165.

    Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission, Decision Regarding the ‘Request for Interpretation, Correction and Consultation’ submitted by the Federal Republic of Ethiopia on 13 May 2002, 24 June 2002, PCA Case No. 2001-01.

  166. 166.

    See above n 165.

  167. 167.

    For an alternative view, see Guazzini, Chap. 7; Abbink, Chap. 8; and Minale, Chap. 29.

  168. 168.

    See Meron 2006, Chapter 1.

  169. 169.

    Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission, Partial Award: Civilians Claims, Ethiopia’s Claim 5, 17 December 2004, PCA Case No. 2001-02. For a counterpart claim from Eritrea, see Partial Award: Civilians Claims, Eritrea’s Claims 15, 16, 23 & 27-32, 17 December 2004, PCA Case No. 2001-02.

  170. 170.

    Ibid.

  171. 171.

    Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission, Partial Award: Prisoners of War, Eritrea’s Claim 17, 1 July 2003, PCA Case No. 2001-02, and Partial Award: Prisoners of War, Ethiopia’s Claim 4, 1  July 2003, PCA Case No. 2001-02.

  172. 172.

    Ibid.

  173. 173.

    See Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission, Partial Award: Central Front, Ethiopia’s Claim 2, 28 April 2004, PCA Case No. 2001-02, and the counterpart claim, Partial Award: Central Front, Eritrea’s Clams 2, 4, 6, 7, 8 & 22, 28 April 2004, PCA Case No. 2001-02; see also Partial Award: Western and Eastern Fronts, Ethiopia’s Claims 1 & 3, 19 December 2005, PCA Case No. 2001-02, and the counterpart claim, Partial Award: Western Front, Aerial Bombardment and Related Claims, Eritrea’s Claims 1, 3, 5, 9–13, 14, 21, 25 & 26, 19 December 2005, PCA Case No. 2001-02.

  174. 174.

    Central Front, Ethiopia 2004 (above n 173).

  175. 175.

    Western Front, Aerial Bombardment 2005 (above n 173). See, generally, Ponti, Chap. 14; Sassòli, Chap. 17; Castagnetti, Chap. 23.

  176. 176.

    Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission, Partial Award: Jus ad Bellum, Ethiopia’s Claims 1–8, 19 December 2005, PCA Case No. 2001-02.

  177. 177.

    Jus ad Bellum 2005 (above n 176) para 9.

  178. 178.

    Ibid., para 10.

  179. 179.

    Ibid., paras 11–14. See also Weeramantry, Chap. 12.

  180. 180.

    Ibid., paras 11–12.

  181. 181.

    Ibid., para 15.

  182. 182.

    Gray 2006, p. 716.

  183. 183.

    Ibid., p. 721.

  184. 184.

    Ibid.

  185. 185.

    Ibid., p. 708 ff.

  186. 186.

    Ibid., p. 716 ff.

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    Michael K. Addo

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    Andrea de Guttry

  2. Faculté Libre de Droit, Université Catholique de Lille, Lille, France

    Harry H. G. Post

  3. DILHPS, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy

    Gabriella Venturini

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Addo, M.K. (2021). The Role of Intergovernmental Agencies in the Prevention of Human Rights Risk in the Aftermath of the 1998–2000 Conflict. In: de Guttry, A., Post, H.H.G., Venturini, G. (eds) The 1998–2000 Eritrea-Ethiopia War and Its Aftermath in International Legal Perspective. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-439-6_27

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