Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Course of Schizophrenia: What Has Been Learned from Longitudinal Studies?

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Handbook of Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders, Volume II

Abstract

Understanding the course of schizophrenia is essential to improve prophylaxis, early diagnosis, diagnostic validity, and prognosis. While the majority of the longitudinal studies of schizophrenia report that 50–70% of patients have a chronic, generally persistent course of illness, the rest of the patients present with a heterogeneous course. Furthermore, there are no clear course predictors at the time of the initial diagnosis. In this chapter we discuss likely contributors to the reported course heterogeneity of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia longitudinal studies are based on heterogeneous patient samples, using different inclusion criteria to define the type and severity of the disease. Different diagnostic approaches as described by Kraepelin, Bleuler, Schneider, Conrad and DSM, amongst others, have been used over time. The implications of different diagnostic systems on course and outcome are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 229.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 299.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 299.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Abbreviations

DSM:

Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders

EEG:

Electroencephalography

ICD:

International classification of diseases

IPSS:

International pilot study of schizophrenia

IQ:

Intelligence quotient

RDC:

Research diagnostic criteria

SCID:

Structured clinical interview for DSM disorders

SOC:

Sense of coherence

SOHO:

Schizophrenia health outcomes

WHO:

World Health Organization

References

  1. Vaillant GE (1962) The prediction of recovery in schizophrenia. J Nerv Ment Dis 135:534–543

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Vaillant GE (1964) Prospective prediction of schizophrenic remission. Arch Gen Psychiatry 11:509–518

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Stephens JH, Astrup C, Mangrum JC (1966) Prognostic factors in recovered and deteriorated schizophrenics. Am J Psychiatry 122(10):1116–1121

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Antonovsky H, Sagy S (1986) The development of a sense of coherence and its impact on responses to stress situations. J Soc Psychol 126(2):213–225

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Bergstein M, Weizman A, Solomon Z (2008) Sense of coherence among delusional patients: prediction of remission and risk of relapse. Compr Psychiatry 49(3):288–296

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Suddendorf T (2006) Behavior: foresight and evolution of the human mind. Science 312(5776):1006–1007

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Heijn C (2005) On foresight. Psychoanal Study Child 60:312–334

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Eack SM, George MM, Prasad KM, Keshavan MS (2008) Neuroanatomical substrates of foresight in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 103(1–3):62–70

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Eack SM, Keshavan MS (2008) Foresight in schizophrenia: a potentially unique and relevant factor to functional disability. Psychiatr Serv 59(3):256–260

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Lysaker PH, Dimaggio G, Carcione A et al (2010) Metacognition and schizophrenia: the capacity for self-reflectivity as a predictor for prospective assessments of work performance over six months. Schizophr Res 122(1–3):124–130

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Ritsner M, Gibel A, Ratner Y (2006) Determinants of changes in perceived quality of life in the course of schizophrenia. Qual Life Res 15(3):515–526

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Kee KS, Green MF, Mintz J, Brekke JS (2003) Is emotion processing a predictor of functional outcome in schizophrenia? Schizophr Bull 29(3):487–497

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Troisi A, Pompili E, Binello L, Sterpone A (2007) Facial expressivity during the clinical interview as a predictor functional disability in schizophrenia a pilot study. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 31(2):475–481

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Leeson VC, Barnes TR, Hutton SB, Ron MA, Joyce EM (2009) IQ as a predictor of functional outcome in schizophrenia: a longitudinal, four-year study of first-episode psychosis. Schizophr Res 107(1):55–60

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. van Winkel R, Myin-Germeys I, Delespaul P, Peuskens J, De Hert M, van Os J (2006) Premorbid IQ as a predictor for the course of IQ in first onset patients with schizophrenia: a 10-year follow-up study. Schizophr Res 88(1–3):47–54

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Angermeyer MC, Goldstein JM, Kuehn L (1989) Gender differences in schizophrenia: rehospitalization and community survival. Psychol Med 19(2):365–382

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Goldstein JM (1988) Gender differences in the course of schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 145(6):684–689

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Seeman MV (1986) Current outcome in schizophrenia: women vs men. Acta Psychiatr Scand 73(6):609–617

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Grossman LS, Harrow M, Rosen C, Faull R, Strauss GP (2008) Sex differences in schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders: a 20-year longitudinal study of psychosis and recovery. Compr Psychiatry 49(6):523–529

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. McGrath JJ, Susser ES (2009) New directions in the epidemiology of schizophrenia. Med J Aust 190(Suppl 4):S7–S9

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. McGrath J, Saha S, Chant D, Welham J (2008) Schizophrenia: a concise overview of incidence, prevalence, and mortality. Epidemiol Rev 30:67–76

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. McGrath JJ (2005) Myths and plain truths about schizophrenia epidemiology–the NAPE lecture 2004. Acta Psychiatr Scand 111(1):4–11

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Pedersen CB, Mortensen PB (2006) Why factors rooted in the family may solely explain the urban-rural differences in schizophrenia risk estimates. Epidemiol Psichiatry Soc 15(4):247–251

    Google Scholar 

  24. Weiser M, Werbeloff N, Vishna T et al (2008) Elaboration on immigration and risk for schizophrenia. Psychol Med 38(8):1113–1119

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Dealberto MJ (2010) Ethnic origin and increased risk for schizophrenia in immigrants to countries of recent and longstanding immigration. Acta Psychiatr Scand 121(5):325–339

    Google Scholar 

  26. McGrath JJ, Welham JL (1999) Season of birth and schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of data from the Southern Hemisphere. Schizophr Res 35(3):237–242

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Torrey EF, Miller J, Rawlings R, Yolken RH (2000) Seasonal birth patterns of neurological disorders. Neuroepidemiology 19(4):177–185

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Wynn Owen PA, Castle DJ (1999) Late-onset schizophrenia: epidemiology, diagnosis, management and outcomes. Drugs Aging 15(2):81–89

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. McGorry PD, McKenzie D, Jackson HJ, Waddell F, Curry C (2000) Can we improve the diagnostic efficiency and predictive power of prodromal symptoms for schizophrenia? Schizophr Res 42(2):91–100

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Goldstein JM, Buka SL, Seidman LJ, Tsuang MT (2010) Specificity of familial transmission of schizophrenia psychosis spectrum and affective psychoses in the New England family study’s high-risk design. Arch Gen Psychiatry 67(5):458–467

    Google Scholar 

  31. Mortensen PB, Pedersen MG, Pedersen CB (2010) Psychiatric family history and schizophrenia risk in Denmark: which mental disorders are relevant? Psychol Med 40(2):201–210

    Google Scholar 

  32. Laursen TM, Munk-Olsen T, Nordentoft M, Bo Mortensen P (2007) A comparison of selected risk factors for unipolar depressive disorder, bipolar affective disorder, schizoaffective disorder, and schizophrenia from a danish population-based cohort. J Clin Psychiatry 68(11):1673–1681

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Haukka JK, Suvisaari J, Lonnqvist J (2004) Family structure and risk factors for schizophrenia: case-sibling study. BMC Psychiatry 4:41

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Lang UE, Puls I, Muller DJ, Strutz-Seebohm N, Gallinat J (2007) Molecular mechanisms of schizophrenia. Cell Physiol Biochem 20(6):687–702

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Brans RG, van Haren NE, van Baal GC, Schnack HG, Kahn RS, Hulshoff Pol HE (2008) Heritability of changes in brain volume over time in twin pairs discordant for schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 65(11):1259–1268

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Spaniel F, Tintera J, Hajek T et al (2007) Language lateralization in monozygotic twins discordant and concordant for schizophrenia. A functional MRI pilot study. Eur Psychiatry 22(5):319–322

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Simons CJ, Jacobs N, Jolles J, van Os J, Krabbendam L (2007) Subclinical psychotic experiences and cognitive functioning as a bivariate phenotype for genetic studies in the general population. Schizophr Res 92(1–3):24–31

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Esterberg ML, Trotman HD, Holtzman C, Compton MT, Walker EF (2010) The impact of a family history of psychosis on age-at-onset and positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Schizophr Res 120(1–3):121–130

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Regier DA, Farmer ME, Rae DS et al (1990) Comorbidity of mental disorders with alcohol and other drug abuse. Results from the epidemiologic catchment area (ECA) study. JAMA 264(19):2511–2518

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Lynskey M, White V, Hill D, Letcher T, Hall W (1999) Prevalence of illicit drug use among youth: results from the Australian school students’ alcohol and drugs survey. Aust N Z J Public Health 23(5):519–524

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Smith FP (1994) A discussion of “method comparison of EMIT II and OnLine with RIA for drug screening,”. (J. Forensic Sci., Vol. 38, No. 6, Nov. 1993, pp. 1326–1341) J Forensic Sci 39(4):909–911

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Arendt M, Rosenberg R, Foldager L, Perto G, Munk-Jorgensen P (2005) Cannabis-induced psychosis and subsequent schizophrenia-spectrum disorders: follow-up study of 535 incident cases. Br J Psychiatry 187:510–515

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Arseneault L, Cannon M, Witton J, Murray RM (2004) Causal association between cannabis and psychosis: examination of the evidence. Br J Psychiatry 184:110–117

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Macleod J, Davey Smith G, Hickman M (2006) Does cannabis use cause schizophrenia? Lancet 367(9516):1055

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Zammit S, Allebeck P, Andreasson S, Lundberg I, Lewis G (2002) Self reported cannabis use as a risk factor for schizophrenia in Swedish conscripts of 1969: historical cohort study. BMJ 325(7374):1199

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Dixon L, Haas G, Weiden P, Sweeney J, Frances A (1990) Acute effects of drug abuse in schizophrenic patients: clinical observations and patients’ self-reports. Schizophr Bull 16(1):69–79

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Hubschmid T, Ciompi L (1990) Predictors of the course of schizophrenia–a review of the literature. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr 58(10):359–366

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Mouridsen SE, Hauschild KM (2008) A longitudinal study of schizophrenia- and affective spectrum disorders in individuals diagnosed with a developmental language disorder as children. J Neural Transm 115(11):1591–1597

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Zammit S, Rasmussen F, Farahmand B et al (2007) Height and body mass index in young adulthood and risk of schizophrenia: a longitudinal study of 1 347 520 Swedish men. Acta Psychiatr Scand 116(5):378–385

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Taylor MA (1992) Are schizophrenia and affective disorder related? a selective literature review. Am J Psychiatry 149(1):22–32

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Kasanin J (1994) The acute schizoaffective psychoses. 1933. Am J Psychiatry 151(Suppl 6):144–154

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Salvatore P, Baldessarini RJ, Tohen M et al (2009) McLean-harvard international first-episode project: two-year stability of DSM-IV diagnoses in 500 first-episode psychotic disorder patients. J Clin Psychiatry 70(4):458–466

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Amin S, Singh SP, Brewin J, Jones PB, Medley I, Harrison G (1999) Diagnostic stability of first-episode psychosis. Comparison of ICD-10 and DSM-III-R systems. Br J Psychiatry 175:537–543

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Peralta V, Cuesta MJ (2002) Can schizophrenia be diagnosed in the initial prodromal phase? Arch Gen Psychiatry 59(7):664–665

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Peralta V, Cuesta MJ (2003) The nosology of psychotic disorders: a comparison among competing classification systems. Schizophr Bull 29(3):413–425

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Reichenberg A, Rieckmann N, Harvey PD (2005) Stability in schizophrenia symptoms over time: findings from the mount sinai pilgrim psychiatric center longitudinal study. J Abnorm Psychol 114(3):363–372

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Vollmer-Larsen A, Jacobsen TB, Hemmingsen R, Parnas J (2006) Schizoaffective disorder – the reliability of its clinical diagnostic use. Acta Psychiatr Scand 113(5):402–407

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  59. Baldessarini R (2000) American biological psychiatry and psychopharmacology 1944–1994. APA Press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  60. World Health Organization (1992) International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10), 10th revision edn. World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  61. Schwartz JE, Fennig S, Tanenberg-Karant M et al (2000) Congruence of diagnoses 2 years after a first-admission diagnosis of psychosis. Arch Gen Psychiatry 57(6):593–600

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Laursen TM, Labouriau R, Licht RW, Bertelsen A, Munk-Olsen T, Mortensen PB (2005) Family history of psychiatric illness as a risk factor for schizoaffective disorder: a Danish register-based cohort study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62(8):841–848

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Mortensen PB, Pedersen CB, Melbye M, Mors O, Ewald H (2003) Individual and familial risk factors for bipolar affective disorders in Denmark. Arch Gen Psychiatry 60(12):1209–1215

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Munk-Olsen T, Laursen TM, Pedersen CB, Mors O, Mortensen PB (2006) New parents and mental disorders: a population-based register study. JAMA 296(21):2582–2589

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Torrey EF (1999) Epidemiological comparison of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Schizophr Res 39(2):101–106 discussion 159–160

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Kelly J, Murray RM (2000) What risk factors tell us about the causes of schizophrenia and related psychoses. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2(5):378–385

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Bramon E, Sham PC (2001) The common genetic liability between schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: a review. Curr Psychiatry Rep 3(4):332–337

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Cardno AG, Rijsdijk FV, Sham PC, Murray RM, McGuffin P (2002) A twin study of genetic relationships between psychotic symptoms. Am J Psychiatry 159(4):539–545

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Owen MJ, Craddock N, Jablensky A (2007) The genetic deconstruction of psychosis. Schizophr Bull 33(4):905–911

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Laursen TM, Agerbo E, Pedersen CB (2009) Bipolar disorder, schizoaffective disorder, and schizophrenia overlap: a new comorbidity index. J Clin Psychiatry 70(10):1432–1438

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Murray RM, Sham P, Van Os J, Zanelli J, Cannon M, McDonald C (2004) A developmental model for similarities and dissimilarities between schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Schizophr Res 71(2–3):405–416

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Crow TJ (1995) A continuum of psychosis, one human gene, and not much else–the case for homogeneity. Schizophr Res 17(2):135–145

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Moller HJ (2003) Bipolar disorder and schizophrenia: distinct illnesses or a continuum? J Clin Psychiatry 64(Suppl 6):23–27 discussion 28

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Harris AaL A (1954) The prognosis of the functional psychosis. Monatsschrift fur Psychiatrie und Neurologie 124:126–145

    Google Scholar 

  75. Mayer-Gross W (1932) Selective outcome resulting from psychological and Physical damage. Springer, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  76. Freyhan FA (1955) Course and outcome of schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 112(3):161–169

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Achte KA (1967) On prognosis and rehabilitation in schizophrenic and paranoid psychoses. A comparative follow-up study of two series of patients first admitted to hospital in 1950 and 1960 respectively. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 196:1–217

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Achte KA, Apo M (1967) Schizophrenic patients in 1950–1952 and 1957–1959. A comparative study. Psychiatry Q 41(3):422–441

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Noreik K, Astrup C, Dalgard OS, Holmboe R (1967) A prolonged follow-up of acute schizophrenic and schizophreniform psychoses. Acta Psychiatr Scand 43(4):432–443

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Tsuang MT, Winokur G (1975) The Iowa 500: field work in a 35-year follow-up of depression, mania, and schizophrenia. Can Psychiatry Assoc J 20(5):359–365

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Mancevski B, Keilp J, Kurzon M et al (2007) Lifelong course of positive and negative symptoms in chronically institutionalized patients with schizophrenia. Psychopathology 40(2):83–92

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Bland RC, Parker JH, Orn H (1976) Prognosis in schizophrenia: a ten-year follow-up of first admissions. Arch Gen Psychiatry 33(8):949–954

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Bleuler M (1972) Die schizophrenen Geistesstorungen im Lichte langjahriger Kranken-und Familiengeschichten. (New-York: Intercontinental Medical Book Corp., US.distribution) ed. George Thieme Velag, Stuttgart

    Google Scholar 

  84. Ciompi L, Muller C (1976) Lifestyle and age of schizophrenics: a catamnestic long-term study into old age. Monogr Gesamtgeb Psychiatry Psychiatry Ser 12(0):1–242

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Harding CM, Brooks GW, Ashikaga T, Strauss JS, Breier A (1987) The vermont longitudinal study of persons with severe mental illness, II: long-term outcome of subjects who retrospectively met DSM-III criteria for schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 144(6):727–735

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Harding CM, Brooks GW, Ashikaga T, Strauss JS, Breier A (1987) The vermont longitudinal study of persons with severe mental illness, I: methodology, study sample, and overall status 32 years later. Am J Psychiatry 144(6):718–726

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Strauss JS, Carpenter WT Jr. (1977) Prediction of outcome in schizophrenia: III. five-year outcome and its predictors. Arch Gen Psychiatry 34(2):159–163

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Huber G, Gross G, Schuttler R, Linz M (1980) Longitudinal studies of schizophrenic patients. Schizophr Bull 6(4):592–605

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Schneider K (1976) Klinische Psycho-pathologie, 4th edn. Georg Thieme Velag KG, Stutgard

    Google Scholar 

  90. Retterstol N (1991) Course and outcome in paranoid disorders. Psychopathology 24(5):277–286

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Opjordsmoen S (1991) Long-term clinical outcome of schizophrenia with special reference to gender differences. Acta Psychiatr Scand 83(4):307–313

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Breier A, Schreiber JL, Dyer J, Pickar D (1991) National institute of mental health longitudinal study of chronic schizophrenia: prognosis and predictors of outcome. Arch Gen Psychiatry 48(3):239–246

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Endicott J, Nee J, Cohen J, Fleiss JL, Simon R (1986) Diagnosis of schizophrenia: prediction of short-term outcome. Arch Gen Psychiatry 43(1):13–19

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Westermeyer JF, Harrow M (1984) Prognosis and outcome using broad (DSM-II) and narrow (DSM-III) concepts of schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 10(4):624–637

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Harrow M, Westermeyer JF (1987) Process-reactive dimension and outcome for narrow concepts of schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 13(3):361–368

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Servaes M (1983) Classification and prognosis of psychoses. Acta Psychiatry Belg 83(4):368–374

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Modestin J, Huber A, Satirli E, Malti T, Hell D (2003) Long-term course of schizophrenic illness: Bleuler’s study reconsidered. Am J Psychiatry 160(12):2202–2208

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Carpenter WT Jr., Strauss JS (1991) The prediction of outcome in schizophrenia: IV: eleven-year follow-up of the Washington IPSS cohort. J Nerv Ment Dis 179(9):517–525

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Eaton WW, Bilker W, Haro JM et al (1992) Long-term course of hospitalization for schizophrenia: Part II: change with passage of time. Schizophr Bull 18(2):229–241

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Harrow M, Grossman LS (1984) Outcome in schizoaffective disorders: a critical review and reevaluation of the literature. Schizophr Bull 10(1):87–108

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Schanda H, Thau K, Kufferle B, Kieffer W, Berner P (1984) Heterogeneity of delusional syndromes: diagnostic criteria and course prognosis. Psychopathology 17(5–6):280–289

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Lenz G, Simhandl C, Thau K, Berner P, Gabriel E (1991) Temporal stability of diagnostic criteria for functional psychoses: results from the Vienna follow-up study. Psychopathology 24(5):328–335

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Tsuang D, Coryell W (1993) An 8-year follow-up of patients with DSM-III-R psychotic depression, schizoaffective disorder, and schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 150(8):1182–1188

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Prudo R, Blum HM (1987) Five-year outcome and prognosis in schizophrenia: a report from the London field research centre of the International pilot study of schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 150:345–354

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Haro JM, Novick D, Suarez D, Ochoa S, Roca M (2008) Predictors of the course of illness in outpatients with schizophrenia: a prospective three year study. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 32(5):1287–1292

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Kirkpatrick B, Buchanan RW, Ross DE, Carpenter WT Jr. (2001) A separate disease within the syndrome of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 58(2):165–171

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Carpenter WT Jr., Heinrichs DW, Wagman AM (1988) Deficit and nondeficit forms of schizophrenia: the concept. Am J Psychiatry 145(5):578–583

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Wagman AM, Heinrichs DW, Carpenter WT Jr. (1987) Deficit and nondeficit forms of schizophrenia: neuropsychological evaluation. Psychiatry Res 22(4):319–330

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Breier A, Buchanan RW, Kirkpatrick B et al (1994) Effects of clozapine on positive and negative symptoms in outpatients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 151(1):20–26

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Buchanan RW, Breier A, Kirkpatrick B, Ball P, Carpenter WT Jr. (1998) Positive and negative symptom response to clozapine in schizophrenic patients with and without the deficit syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 155(6):751–760

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Kopelowicz A, Liberman RP, Mintz J, Zarate R (1997) Comparison of efficacy of social skills training for deficit and nondeficit negative symptoms in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 154(3):424–425

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Amador XF, Kirkpatrick B, Buchanan RW, Carpenter WT, Marcinko L, Yale SA (1999) Stability of the diagnosis of deficit syndrome in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 156(4):637–639

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Fenton WS, McGlashan TH (1994) Antecedents, symptom progression, and long-term outcome of the deficit syndrome in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 151(3):351–356

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Kirkpatrick B, Buchanan RW, Breier A, Carpenter WT Jr. (1993) Case identification and stability of the deficit syndrome of schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 47(1):47–56

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Kirkpatrick B, Ram R, Bromet E (1996) The deficit syndrome in the Suffolk County mental health project. Schizophr Res 22(2):119–126

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Strauss GP, Harrow M, Grossman LS, Rosen C (2010) Periods of recovery in deficit syndrome schizophrenia: a 20-year multi-follow-up longitudinal study. Schizophr Bull 36(4):788–799

    Google Scholar 

  117. Harvey CA, Jeffreys SE, McNaught AS, Blizard RA, King MB (2007) The Camden schizophrenia surveys: III: five-year outcome of a sample of individuals from a prevalence survey and the importance of social relationships. Int J Soc Psychiatry 53(4):340–356

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Schultz SK, Miller DD, Oliver SE, Arndt S, Flaum M, Andreasen NC (1997) The life course of schizophrenia: age and symptom dimensions. Schizophr Res 23(1):15–23

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Hoff AL, Svetina C, Shields G, Stewart J, DeLisi LE (2005) Ten year longitudinal study of neuropsychological functioning subsequent to a first episode of schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 78(1):27–34

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Hoff AL, Sakuma M, Wieneke M, Horon R, Kushner M, DeLisi LE (1999) Longitudinal neuropsychological follow-up study of patients with first-episode schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 156(9):1336–1341

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Rosenbaum B, Valbak K, Harder S et al (2006) Treatment of patients with first-episode psychosis: two-year outcome data from the Danish National Schizophrenia Project. World Psychiatry 5(2):100–103

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Rosenbaum B, Valbak K, Harder S et al (2005) The Danish National schizophrenia project: prospective, comparative longitudinal treatment study of first-episode psychosis. Br J Psychiatry 186:394–399

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Jager M, Riedel M, Obermeier M et al (2010) Time course of antipsychotic treatment response in schizophrenia: results from a naturalistic study in 280 patients. Schizophr Res 118(1–3):183–188

    Google Scholar 

  124. Thirthalli J, Venkatesh BK, Kishorekumar KV et al (2009) Prospective comparison of course of disability in antipsychotic-treated and untreated schizophrenia patients. Acta Psychiatr Scand 119(3):209–217

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Kraepelin E (1915) Clinical psychiatry:a textbook for students and physicians, 7th edn. McMillan, New York, NY

    Google Scholar 

  126. Stephens JH, Astrup C, Carpenter WT Jr., Shaffer JW, Goldberg J (1982) A comparison of nine systems to diagnose schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 6(2):127–143

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Bergem AL, Dahl AA, Guldberg C, Hansen H (1990) Langfeldt’s schizophreniform psychoses fifty years later. Br J Psychiatry 157:351–354

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Torgalsboen AK, Rund BR (1998) “Full recovery” from schizophrenia in the long term: a ten-year follow-up of eight former schizophrenic patients. Psychiatry 61(1):20–34

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Koshland DE Jr (2007) Philosophy of science: the Cha-Cha-Cha theory of scientific discovery. Science 317(5839):761–762

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Fink M, Taylor MA (2009) The catatonia syndrome: forgotten but not gone. Arch Gen Psychiatry 66(11):1173–1177

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Bota RG, Munro JS, Sagduyu K (2007) Benefits of boarding home placement in patients with schizophrenia. South Med J 100(2):145–148

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Peterson DB, Olson GW (1964) First admitted schizophrenics in drug era; follow-up anoka schizophrenic cohort, 1956–1958. Arch Gen Psychiatry 11:137–144

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. McWalter H (1961) Outcomes of treatment of schizophrenia in a North-East Scottish mental hospital. Am J Psychiatry 118:529–533

    Google Scholar 

  134. Wyatt RJ (1991) Neuroleptics and the natural course of schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 17(2):325–351

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Stephens JH (1978) Long-term prognosis and followup in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 4(1):25–47

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Ciompi L, Medvecka J (1976) Comparative study of long-term mortality in the mentally ill. Schweiz Arch Neurol Neurochir Psychiatry 118(1):111–135

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Strauss GP, Harrow M, Grossman LS, Rosen C (2010) Periods of recovery in deficit syndrome schizophrenia: a 20-year multi-follow-up longitudinal study. Schizophr Bull 36(4):788–799

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Missouri, Kansas City, MO, USA

    Robert G. Bota

  2. Kaiser Permanente, Riverside, CA, USA

    Robert G. Bota

  3. Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Kansas City, MO, USA

    Stuart Munro

  4. Center for Behavioral Medicine, Kansas City, MO, USA

    Stuart Munro

  5. University of California Irvine, Orange, CA, USA

    Charles Nguyen

  6. Long Beach Veterans Affairs, Long Beach, CA, USA

    Charles Nguyen

  7. Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California Irvine, Orange, CA, USA

    Adrian Preda

Authors
  1. Robert G. Bota
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Stuart Munro
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Charles Nguyen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Adrian Preda
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Robert G. Bota .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. , Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion - Israel Institute of Technolog, Haifa, Israel

    Michael Ritsner

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2011 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Bota, R.G., Munro, S., Nguyen, C., Preda, A. (2011). Course of Schizophrenia: What Has Been Learned from Longitudinal Studies?. In: Ritsner, M. (eds) Handbook of Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders, Volume II. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0831-0_11

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation