Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Victims of Civil War

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Victims of International Crimes: An Interdisciplinary Discourse

Abstract

Large-scale international crimes always have a profound impact on both the individual victims and the society as a whole, i.e., the victimisation has an individual and a collective dimension. Civil wars or non-international armed conflicts are characterised by the fact that they take place within a society. Accordingly, the belligerent parties are often connected in language, history and culture. With the outbreak of the conflict, the need arises to stress the differences between them in order to construct clearly distinguishable opposing groups. This process is often accompanied by a systematic discrimination, dehumanisation and degradation of the adversary creating a general atmosphere of hate which furthers an escalation of violence and a brutalisation of the conflict. In addition, civil wars are often asymmetric conflicts with a strong imbalance of power between the conflicting parties—a critical situation which entails an increased risk of non-compliance with international humanitarian law. Moreover, the fighting may result in a circle of violence in which the positions of victims and victimisers become interchangeable. The main challenge of a transitional process in the aftermath of the atrocities is to meet the needs of all persons affected by the violence—be they civilians, soldiers or fighters—and to heal the divide of the society.

The author is Senior Research Assistant of Professor Dr. Kai Ambos, Department for Foreign and International Criminal Law, and assistant professor at the Georg-August Universität Göttingen, Germany.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    Ewald 2002, pp. 90, 93, 94; Rauschenbach and Scalia 2008, pp. 441, 450.

  2. 2.

    In more detail and with further references Bock 2010 pp. 166–168; see also Ewald and von Oppeln 2002 pp. 39, 44.

  3. 3.

    ICTY Prosecutor v Tadić, AC, IT-94-1, 2 October 1995, Decision on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction, para 70. This definition was adopted by Article 8 para 2 lit. f) of the Statute of the International Criminal Court (hereafter, ICC Statute), adopted on 17 July 1998, entered into force on 1 July 2002.

  4. 4.

    Cryer et al. 2010, p. 275; Fleck 2008, mn 1202/2; Kolb and Hyde 2008, p. 257; Robinson and von Hebel 1999, pp. 193, 194; Werle 2009, mn 967; Sivakumaran 2011, pp. 219, 220, 222.

  5. 5.

    Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field; Convention (II) for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea; Convention (III) relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War and Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, Geneva, 12 August 1949.

  6. 6.

    Cryer et al. 2010, p. 275; Cottier 2008, mn 3; Kreß 2000, pp. 103–105; Robinson and von Hebel 1999, p. 195.

  7. 7.

    In this vein also Kolb and Hyde 2008, pp. 257, 258. Cf. also Ambos 2001, p. 327 who criticises that the distinction between international and non-international armed conflicts has led to a different legal treatment of similar conducts.

  8. 8.

    ICTY Prosecutor v Tadić, AC, IT-94-1, 2 October 1995, Decision on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction, para 119. Cf. also Fleck 2008, mn 1201/4.

  9. 9.

    Kreß 2000, p. 102.

  10. 10.

    Ambos 2001, p. 326; Ambos 2011, § 7 mn 232; Safferling 2011, § 6 mn 128. Cf. also Olásolo 2008, p. 55.

  11. 11.

    Cf. the overview on the different levels of protection by Ambos 2011, § 7 mn 248. Critically thereto inter alia Olásolo 2008, p. 57; Cryer et al. 2010, p. 278.

  12. 12.

    See also Bock 2010, p. 114; Kreß 2000, p. 107; Politi 2001, p. 11; Werle 2009, mn 971 and SCSL, Prosecutor v Fofana and Kondewa, AC, SCSL-04-14-PT-101, 25 May 2004, Decision on preliminary motion on lack of jurisdiction—nature of the armed conflict, para 25.

  13. 13.

    In more detail Sivakumaran 2011, pp. 237 et seq.

  14. 14.

    See Neubacher 2008, p. 26.

  15. 15.

    Lavie and Muller 2011, pp. 155, 157. Cf. also Grossman 2009, pp. 177 et seq.

  16. 16.

    Neubacher 2008, p. 33 who refers to the prohibition to kill as a minima moralia.

  17. 17.

    In more detail Grossman 2009, pp. 2 et seq., 30 et seq. With a special view on imposing and executing death penalties Adcock 2010, p. 314; Moses 1996, p. 52.

  18. 18.

    Some armies use computer games to reduce the soldiers’ reluctance to kill, see Mixon 2010, pp. 327, 364; Saunders 2003, pp. 51, 77.

  19. 19.

    Cf. also the application of the neutralisation theory on international crimes by Jäger 1989, pp. 187 et seq.; Neubacher 2008, pp. 35 et seq.

  20. 20.

    Sykes and Matza 1957, p. 664.

  21. 21.

    Sykes and Matza 1957, p. 667.

  22. 22.

    Sykes and Matza 1957, p. 668. The other neutralisation techniques are ‘denial of responsibility’, ‘denial of injury’, ‘condemnation of the condemners’ and the ‘appeal to higher loyalties’. Although all this techniques may become relevant in civil wars (see Bock 2010, pp. 120 et seq.; Neubacher 2008, pp. 35 et seq.), I will focus on the denial of victims because of its fundamental social consequences.

  23. 23.

    Bock 2010, p. 122 with further references. See also Jäger 1989, p. 194; Neubacher 2008, p. 37.

  24. 24.

    Illustrative Grossman 2009, p. 161 who states that ‘[i]t is so much easier to kill someone if they look distinctly different from you’.

  25. 25.

    Cf. for example Ajdukovic and Corkalo 2004, p. 287; Corkalo et al. 2004, p. 145; Ewald 2002, p. 96 and Bock 2010, p. 127 with fn. 561.

  26. 26.

    As to the development of the ethnic tensions in the former Yugoslavia see Ajdukovic and Corkalo 2004, pp. 290 et seq.

  27. 27.

    Waldmann 1998, p. 142. Cf. also Corkalo et al. 2004, pp. 145, 146.

  28. 28.

    Corkalo et al. 2004, pp. 145, 146; Waldmann 1998, p. 142.

  29. 29.

    Neubacher 2008, p. 143; Waldmann 1998, p. 143.

  30. 30.

    Cf. also Bassiouni 2008, pp. 711, 780.

  31. 31.

    Cf. in more detail Lavie and Muller 2011, p. 155; also Waldmann 1998, pp. 114, 145 and the example by Neubacher 2008, p. 47. In the war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, for example, the control over natural resources like gold, oil, timber and diamonds played an important role, cf. only ICC Prosecutor v Lubanga, PTC I, ICC-01/04-01/06-803, 29 January 2007, Decision on the confirmation of charges, paras 2 et seq.

  32. 32.

    Jäger 1989, pp. 194, 195; Neubacher 2008, p. 37; Grossman 2009, pp. 158, 161, 190. Cf. also Bassiouni 2008, p. 779; Bock 2010, p. 125.

  33. 33.

    In this vein also Bassiouni 2008, p. 780.

  34. 34.

    Cf. the example given by Ajdukovic and Corkalo 2004, p. 294; see also Ewald 2002, p. 95.

  35. 35.

    Bassiouni 2008, pp. 780, 781. Cf. also Waldmann 1998, pp. 148 et seq. and the example given bei Grossman 2009, p. 190.

  36. 36.

    As to imbalances between the belligerent parties in modern international armed conflicts see, however, Heinsch 2010, pp. 133, 140; Pfanner 2005, pp. 149, 152, 153.

  37. 37.

    Instructive Münkler 2008, pp. 309 et seq. Cf. also Geiß 2006, pp. 757, 760, 762; Pfanner 2005, p. 152.

  38. 38.

    Cf. also Geiß 2010, p. 758; Somer 2007, pp. 655, 659. The differences between the actors of international and non-international armed conflicts are also stressed by Sivakumaran 2011, p. 237.

  39. 39.

    Bassiouni 2008, p. 785; Fleck 2008, mn 1201/1; Geiß 2006, p. 758; Bock 2010, p. 114.

  40. 40.

    Geiß 2010, pp. 122, 123; Pfanner 2005, p. 153.

  41. 41.

    Bassiouni 2008, p. 714; Geiß 2006, p. 758.

  42. 42.

    Austin and Kolenc 2006, pp. 291, 293; Bassiouni 2008, pp. 714, 715; Bock 2010, p. 114; Geiß 2010, p. 122; in more detail on reasons why armed groups may decide not to respect international humanitarian law Bangerter 2011, pp. 368–383.

  43. 43.

    Austin and Kolenc 2006, p. 293; Geiß 2006, p. 758; id. 2010, p. 123. I focus only on means that are in breach of humanitarian law. Such unlawful attacks may, however, be complemented by lawful strategies like ‘media war’ (the well-directed manipulation of the population through mass media, cf. thereto Austin and Kolenc 2006, pp. 305, 306) and ‘law-fare’ (the use of judicial processes to challenge the stronger opponent, in more detail Austin and Kolenc 2006, pp. 306 et seq.; Ziolkowski 2010, p. 112).

  44. 44.

    Bassiouni 2008, p. 770.

  45. 45.

    Geiß 2006, pp. 763 et seq.; id 2010, p. 123; Pfanner 2005, p. 154.

  46. 46.

    Hankel 2008, pp. 418, 419. Cf. also Bassiouni 2008, p. 770.

  47. 47.

    Geiß 2006, p. 758.

  48. 48.

    Geiß 2010, p. 124; in more detail Bangerter 2011, pp. 358–368.

  49. 49.

    Kreß 2000, p. 123.

  50. 50.

    ICTY Prosecutor v Mucić et al., AC, IT-96-21-A, 20 February 2001, Appeals Chamber Judgement, para 420.

  51. 51.

    Cf. only the comprehensive study of the ICRC (2009) Interpretive Guidance on the notion of direct participation in hostilities under International Humanitarian Law. Available at www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/icrc-002-0990.pdf.

  52. 52.

    Chuter 2003, p. 105; Green 2007, p. 91.

  53. 53.

    Green 2007, p. 91.

  54. 54.

    Bock 2010, p. 448; Ewald and von Oppeln 2002, p. 40.

  55. 55.

    Helle 2000, available at www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/57jqqe.htm.

  56. 56.

    SCSL Prosecutor v Norman, AC, SCSL-2004-14-AR72, 31 May 2004, Decision on preliminary motion based on lack of jurisdiction (child recruitment), para 29. As to the heinous recruitment methods, the often hard and brutal training and the specific tasks assigned to child soldiers see Cohn and Goodwin-Gill 1994, pp. 93 et seq.; Davison 2004, pp. 124, 137 et seq.; Happold 2005, pp. 4 et seq. Cf. also Bock 2010, p. 448 and the historical overview on child participation in armed conflicts by Palomo Suárez 2008, pp. 17 et seq.

  57. 57.

    Happold 2005, pp. 141 et seq.; Maystre 2010, pp. 193 et seq.; cf. also Werle 2009, mn 1137.

  58. 58.

    Bock 2010, p. 448; Maystre 2010, p. 139; Happold 2008, p. 56. Another question is, however, if the children are criminally responsible for their actions. The ICC, for example, has no jurisdiction over any person who was under the age of 18 at the time of the alleged commission of the crime (Article 26 of the ICC Statute), cf. thereto in more detail Maystre 2010, pp. 193 et seq.; Happold 2005, pp. 141 et seq.

  59. 59.

    Bock 2010, p. 165; Cohn and Goodwin-Gill 1994, pp. 32, 42; Ewald and von Oppeln 2002, p. 44; Happold 2005, p. 13.

  60. 60.

    Lavie and Muller 2011, p. 171. Cf. also Happold 2005, pp. 12, 13.

  61. 61.

    Cohn and Goodwin-Gill 1994, pp. 40 et seq.

  62. 62.

    With a special on the view on victim participation in the proceedings before the ICC Bock 2010, pp. 447, 448.

  63. 63.

    Ewald and von Oppeln 2002, p. 41; in a similar vein in more detail Bangerter 2011, p. 374.

  64. 64.

    Dyregrov et al. 2002, p. 59 at p. 66; Rosner et al. 2003, p. 41 at p. 50; Bock 2010, p. 123 with further references. Cf. also ICTR, Prosecutor v Akayesu, Trial Judgement, 02.09.1998, ICTR-96-4-T, para 142.

  65. 65.

    Waldmann 1998, p. 146.

  66. 66.

    www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/page?page=49e45c366&submit=GO. Cf. also Human Rights Watch (2010) Always on the Run—The Vicious Cycle of Displacement in Eastern Congo. Available at www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/drc0910webwcover.pdf, p. 8.

  67. 67.

    In more detail Spasojević et al. 2000, p. 205.

  68. 68.

    Human Rights Watch, supra note 66, at pp. 8, 22 et seq.; Bock 2010, pp. 144 et seq.

  69. 69.

    Bock 2010, pp. 146 et seq. with further references. Cf. also Eisenbruch et al. 2004, p. 123.

  70. 70.

    Kilpatrick and Acierno 2003, p. 119 at pp. 128 et seq.; Bock 2010, pp. 67, 68 with further references. With a particular focus on social support Irving et al. 1997, p. 465; Andrews et al. 2003, pp. 421, 424 et seq.

  71. 71.

    See only Rosner et al. 2003, p. 42 who emphasise that ‘that regardless of cultural origin, the majority of those surviving traumatic events usually do not develop a long-lasting psychiatric disorder’. In the same vein Ewald 2002, p. 97.

  72. 72.

    The American Psychiatric Association defines a traumatic event as follows (definition proposed for the fifth edition of the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders which shall be released in May 2013, available at www.dsm5.org/ProposedRevisions/Pages/proposedrevision.aspx?rid=165):

    The person was exposed to one or more of the following event(s): death or threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violation, in one or more of the following ways:

    1. 1.

      Experiencing the event(s) him/herself

    2. 2.

      Witnessing, in person, the event(s) as they occurred to others

    3. 3.

      Learning that the event(s) occurred to a close relative or close friend; in such cases, the actual or threatened death must have been violent or accidental

    4. 4.

      Experiencing repeated or extreme exposure to aversive details of the event(s) (e.g., first responders collecting body parts; police officers repeatedly exposed to details of child abuse); this does not apply to exposure through electronic media, television, movies or pictures, unless this exposure is work related.

  73. 73.

    Irving et al. 1997, p. 475; Rauschenbach and Scalia 2008, p. 450.

  74. 74.

    Dahl et al. 1998, pp. 137, 142.

  75. 75.

    Dahl et al. 1998, p. 142. Cf. also Rauschenbach and Scalia 2008, p. 450 and Rosner et al. 2003, who state that ‘after 8 years of war in Sri Lanka, 93 % of respondents of a representative sample of civilians reported being subject to at least one direct traumatic stressor, 40 % hat experienced between five and nine traumatic stressors’ (emphasises added).

  76. 76.

    Rosner et al. 2003, p. 52. Ewald 2002, p. 97 even argues that ‘traumatisation is almost unavoidable’. Cf. also ICTR Prosecutor v Akayesu, TC I, ICTR-96-4-T, 2 September 1998, Trial Judgement, para 142.

  77. 77.

    Bock 2010, p. 127 with further references.

  78. 78.

    Ewald 2002, p. 96; Bock 2010, p. 168.

  79. 79.

    Ewald and von Oppeln 2002, p. 44; Rauschenbach and Scalia 2008, p. 451. See in more detail Barsalou 2005, available at www.usip.org/files/resources/sr135.pdf, pp. 4 et seq.

  80. 80.

    Rauschenbach and Scalia 2008, p. 451. Cf. also Barsalou 2005, p. 1.

  81. 81.

    Zimmermann 2008, mn 278 et seq.; Werle 2009, mn 1027; Cryer et al. 2010, p. 287.

  82. 82.

    Cf. only Beckham et al. 1998, pp. 777, 780.

  83. 83.

    Cf. for example Grossman 2009, pp. 43 et seq. and the study of Schnurr et al. 2003, p. 545 with further references.

  84. 84.

    Irving et al. 1997, p. 475; Beckham et al. 1998, p. 777; Grossman 2009, p. 86; Bock 2010, p. 121.

  85. 85.

    Kubany et al. 1997, pp. 235, 236; Grossman 2009, p. 88.

  86. 86.

    Cf. the case studies by Grossman 2009, pp. 88 et seq., 92, 198 et seq.; 224 et seq.

  87. 87.

    Kubany et al. 1997, p. 246; Grossman 2009, p. 74.

  88. 88.

    Calhoun et al. 2002a, pp. 205, 208–210. Cf. also Bock 2010, p. 161 with further references and the study by Calhoun et al. 2002b, p. 133.

  89. 89.

    See in more detail Ruscio et al. 2001, p. 351; Riggs et al. 1998, p. 87; Samper et al. 2004, pp. 311, 313, 314; Bock 2010, pp. 159–161.

  90. 90.

    Cf. thereto Bock 2010, pp. 161–164; Rosenheck and Fontana 1998, p. 731; van IJzendoorn et al. 2003, p. 459; Rosenthal 2002, p. 174; Rauschenbach and Scalia 2008, p. 451.

References

  • Adcock CF (2010) The collateral anti-therapeutic effects of the death penalty. Fla Coast L Rev 11:289–320.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ajdukovic D, Corkalo D (2004) Trust and betrayal in war. In: Stoverand E, Weinstein HM (eds) My neighbor, my enemy. CUP, Cambridge, pp. 287–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ambos K (2001) Zur Bestrafung von Verbrechen im internationalen, nicht-internationalen und internen Konflikt. In: Hasse J, Müller E, Schneider P (eds) Humanitäres Völkerrecht—Politische, rechtliche und strafgerichtliche Dimensionen. Nomos, Munich, p. 325.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ambos K (2011) Internationales Strafrecht, 3rd edn. Beck, Munich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews B, Brewin CR, Rose S (2003) Gender, social support, and PTSD in victims of violent crime. JTS 16:421–427.

    Google Scholar 

  • Austin WC, Kolenc AB (2006) Who’s afraid of the big bad wolf? The International Criminal Court as a weapon of asymmetric warfare. VJTL 39:291–335.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bangerter O (2011) Reasons why armed groups choose to respect International Humanitarian Law or not. IRRC 93:353–384.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barsalou J (2005) Trauma and transitional justice in divided societies. Special Report No. 135. www.usip.org/files/resources/sr135.pdf. Accessed 14 April 2013.

  • Bassiouni MC (2008) The new wars and the crisis of compliance with the law of armed conflict by non-state actors. JCLC 98:711–810.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beckham JC, Feldman ME, Kirby AC (1998) Atrocities exposure in Vietnam combat veterans with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: relationship to combat exposure, symptom severity, guilt and interpersonal violence. JTS 11:777–785.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bock S (2010) Das Opfer vor dem Internationalen Strafgerichtshof. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calhoun PS, Beckham JC, Bosworth HB (2002a) Caregiver burden and psychological distress in partners of veterans with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. JTS 15:205–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calhoun PS, Beckham JC, Feldman ME, Barefoot JC, Haney T, Bosworth HB (2002b) Partners’ ratings of combat veterans’ anger. JTS 15:133–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chuter D (2003) War crimes: confronting atrocity in the modern world. Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohn I, Goodwin-Gill GS (1994) Child soldiers—the role of children in armed conflict. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corkalo D, Ajdukovic D, Weinstein HM, Stover E, Djipa D, Biro M (2004) Neighbors again? Intercommunity relations after ethnic cleansing. In: Stover E, Weinstein HM (eds) My neighbor, my enemy. CUP, Cambridge, pp. 143–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cottier M (2008) Article 8. In: Triffterer O (ed) Commentary on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Beck/Hart/Nomos, Munich, mn. 1–234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cryer R, Friman H, Robinson D, Wilmshurst E (2010) An introduction to International Criminal Law and procedure, 2nd edn. CUP, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dahl S, Mutapcic A, Schei B (1998) Traumatic events and predictive factors for posttraumatic symptoms in displaced Bosnian women in a war zone. JTS 11:137–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davison A (2004) Child soldiers: no longer a minor incident. WJILDR 12:124–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dyregrov A, Gjestad R, Raundalen M (2002) Children exposed to warfare: a longitudinal study. JTS 15:59–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenbruch M, de Jong J, van de Put W (2004) Bringing order out of chaos: a culturally competent approach to managing the problems of refugees and victims of organized violence. JTS 17:123–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ewald U (2002) Victimization in the context of war—some aspects of a macro-victimological research project. EJCCLCJ 10:90–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ewald U, von Oppeln C (2002) War—victimization—security: the case of the former Yugoslavia. EJCCLCJ 10:39–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleck D (2008) The law of non-international armed conflicts. In: Fleck D (ed) The handbook of International Humanitarian Law, 2nd edn. OUP, Oxford, pp 605–633.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geiß R (2006) Asymmetric conflict structures. IRRC 88:757–777.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geiß R (2010) The conduct of hostilities in asymmetric conflicts: reciprocity, distinction, proportionality, precautions. HuV-I 23:122–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green S (2007) Crime, victimisation and vulnerability. In: Walklate S (ed) Handbook of victims and victimology. Willan, Cullompton, pp. 91–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grossman D (2009) On killing—the psychological cost of learning to kill in war and society, little. Brown and Co., New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hankel G (2008) Eroberung, Widerstand und Radikalisierung—Überlegungen zum Kombattantenstatus im asymmetrischen Krieg. In: Hankel G (ed) Die Macht und das Recht. Hamburger Edition, Hamburg, pp. 414–460.

    Google Scholar 

  • Happold M (2005) Child soldiers in international law. Manchester University Press, Manchester.

    Google Scholar 

  • Happold M (2008) Child soldiers: victims or perpetrators. Univ La Verne L Rev 29:56–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heinsch R (2010) Der Wandel des Kriegsbegriffs - Brauchen wir eine Revision des humanitären Völkerrechts? HuV-I 23:133–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helle D (2000) Optional protocol on the involvement of children in armed conflict to the convention on the rights of the child, 30-09-2000 Article, IRRC, No. 839. www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/57jqqe.htm . Accessed 14 April 2013.

  • Irving LM, Telfer L, Blake DD (1997) Hope, coping, and social support in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. JTS 10:465–479.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jäger H (1989) Makrokriminalität. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt/Main.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kilpatrick DG, Acierno R (2003) Mental health needs of crime victims: epidemiology and outcomes. JTS 16:119–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolb R, Hyde R (2008) An introduction to the international law of armed conflicts. Hart Publishing, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreß C (2000) War crimes committed in non-international armed conflict and the emerging system of international criminal justice. Israel Yearb Hum Rights 30:103–177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kubany ES, Abueg FR, Kilauano W, Manke RP, Kaplan A (1997) Development and validation of the sources of trauma-related guilt survey—war-zone version. JTS 10:235–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lavie M, Muller C (2011) Incentives and survival in violent conflicts. GoJIL 3:155–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maystre M (2010) Les enfants soldats en droit international. Pedone, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mixon J (2010) Neoclassical economics and the erosion of middle-class values: an explanation for the economic collapse. Notre Dame J Law Ethics Pub Poly 24:327–366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moses R (1996) Persuading the sentencing body not to return a death verdict. Champion 20:52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Münkler H (2008) Reziprozität, Asymmetrie und die neuerliche Moralisierung des Krieges. In: Hankel G (ed) Die Macht und das Recht. Hamburger Edition, Hamburg, pp. 300–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neubacher F (2008) Die Relativierung von Normen bei Verbrechen des Staates - wie selbst schwerste Verbrechen möglich (gemacht) werden. In: Hankel G (ed) Die Macht und das Recht. Hamburger Edition, Hamburg, pp. 23–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olásolo H (2008) Unlawful attacks in combat situations—from the ICTY’s case law to the Rome Statute. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palomo Suárez G (2008) Kindersoldaten und Völkerstrafrecht - Die Strafbarkeit der Rekrutierung und Verwendung von Kindersoldaten nach Völkerrecht. Berliner Wissenschaftsverlag, Berlin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pfanner T (2005) Asymmetrical warfare from the perspective of humanitarian law and humanitarian action. IRRC 87:149–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Politi M (2001) The Rome Statute of the ICC: rays of light and some shadows. In: Politi M, Nesi G (eds) The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court—a challenge to impunity. Ashgate, Aldershot, pp 7–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rauschenbach M, Scalia D (2008) Victims and international criminal justice: a vexed question? IRRC 90:441–459.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riggs DS, Byrne CA, Weathers FW, Litz BT (1998) The quality of the intimate relationships of male Vietnam veterans: problems associated with posttraumatic stress disorder. JTS 11:87–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson D, von Hebel H (1999) War crimes in internal conflicts: article 8 of the ICC Statute. Yearb Int Humanit Law 2:193–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenheck R, Fontana A (1998) Transgenerational effects of abusive violence on the children of Vietnam combat veterans. JTS 11:731–742.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal G (2002) Transgenerationale Folgen von Verfolgung und Täterschaft. In: Streeck-Fischer A, Sachsse U, Özkan I (eds) Körper, Seele, Trauma. Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, Göttingen, pp. 174–206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosner R, Powell S, Butollo W (2003) Posttraumatic stress disorder three years after the siege of Sarajevo. JCLP 59:41–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruscio AM, Weathers FW, King LA, King DW (2001) Male war-zone veterans’ perceived relationships with their children: the importance of emotional numbing. JTS 15:351–357.

    Google Scholar 

  • Safferling CJM (2011) Internationales Strafrecht. Springer, Heidelberg.

    Google Scholar 

  • Samper RE, Taft CT, King DW, King LA (2004) Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and parenting satisfaction among a national sample of male Vietnam veterans. JTS 17:311–315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saunders KW (2003) Regulating youth access to violent video games: three responses to first amendment concerns. Law Rev Mich State Univ Detroit Coll Law 51:51–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schnurr PP, Lunney CA, Sengupta A (2003) A descriptive analysis of PTSD chronicity in Vietnam veterans. JTS 16:545–553.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sivakumaran S (2011) Re-envisaging the international law of internal armed conflict. EJIL 22:219–264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Somer J (2007) Jungle justice: passing sentence on the equality of belligerents in non-international armed conflict. IRRC 89:655–690.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spasojević J, Heffer RW, Snyder DK (2000) Effects of posttraumatic stress and acculturation on marital functioning in Bosnian refugee couples. JTS 13:205–277.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sykes GM, Matza D (1957) Techniques of neutralization: a theory of delinquency. ASR 22:664–670.

    Google Scholar 

  • van IJzendoorn MH, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Sagi-Schwartz A (2003) Are children of Holocaust survivors less well-adapted? A meta-analytic investigation of secondary traumatization. JTS 16:459–469.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waldmann P (1998) Gesellschaften im Bürgerkrieg - Zur Eigendynamik entfesselter Gewalt. In: Lüderssen K (ed) Aufgeklärte Kriminalpolitik oder Kampf gegen das Böse? Band III, Makrodelinquenz. Nomos, Baden–Baden, pp. 139–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Werle G (2009) Principles of International Criminal Law. TMC Asser Press, The Hague.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmermann A (2008) Art. 8. In: Triffterer O (ed) Commentary on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Beck, Hart, Nomos, Munich, mn 270.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ziolkowski K (2010) “Lawfare” - die Theorie von der Fortsetzung des Krieges mit “rechtlichen Mitteln”. HuV-I 23:112–121.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department for Foreign and International Criminal Law, Georg-August Universität, Göttingen, Germany

    Stefanie Bock

Authors
  1. Stefanie Bock
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Stefanie Bock .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Institut fur Soziologie, Philips Universitat, Ketzerbach 11, Marburg, 35032, Germany

    Thorsten Bonacker

  2. , Institut für Kriminalwissenschaften, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Universitätstraße 6, Marburg, 35032, Germany

    Christoph Safferling

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 T.M.C. ASSER PRESS, The Hague, The Netherlands, and the authors

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Bock, S. (2013). Victims of Civil War. In: Bonacker, T., Safferling, C. (eds) Victims of International Crimes: An Interdisciplinary Discourse. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague, The Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-6704-912-2_16

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Societies and partnerships

Search

Navigation