Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Melanoma

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Pathology of Pigmented Skin Lesions

  • 1814 Accesses

Abstract

Melanoma is a relatively common malignant neoplasm that arises from melanocytes and is most commonly cutaneous in origin; however, it can arise in the eye, mucosae, and internal organs [1, 2]. Melanoma is one of the most common forms of cancer in young adults and thus it represents a major public health problem. Overall, melanoma is the fifth most common cancer in men and the sixth in women in the United States. The incidence of cutaneous melanoma has increased dramatically in the last years and remains to be the leading cause of death in cutaneous malignancies [3–6]. The Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program reports an increase of more than 600 % in the diagnosis of cutaneous melanoma from 1950s to 2000s [7], with an average increase of 2.9 % each year between 1985 and 2009. Overall, the lifetime risk for developing melanoma in patients born in 2012 is 2.62 for men and 1.63 for women (SEER data). The increased incidence varies by age, gender, ethnicity, and histologic subtype. Before the age of 40, the incidence is higher in women, with most melanomas located on the lower extremities and exhibiting the superficial spreading histology. After the age of 40, the incidence is much higher in men, with most melanomas presenting on the head and neck and back. Also, incidence increases are most pronounced in white populations, particularly elderly individuals, whereas the incidence among darkly pigmented populations has risen only slightly or remained stable. The incidence of melanoma in children is increasing [8–10], which can be associated with risk factor such as xeroderma pigmentosum, familial dysplastic nevus syndrome or familial melanoma, and possibly immunosuppression.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Singh AD, Turell ME, Topham AK. Uveal melanoma: trends in incidence, treatment, and survival. Ophthalmology. 2011;118(9):1881–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. McLaughlin CC, Wu XC, Jemal A, Martin HJ, Roche LM, Chen VW. Incidence of noncutaneous melanomas in the U.S. Cancer. 2005;103(5):1000–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Rigel DS. Malignant melanoma: incidence issues and their effect on diagnosis and treatment in the 1990s. Mayo Clin Proc. 1997;72(4):367–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Pellacani G, Lo Scocco G, Vinceti M, Albertini G, Raccagni AA, Baldassari L, et al. Melanoma epidemic across the millennium: time trends of cutaneous melanoma in Emilia-Romagna (Italy) from 1997 to 2004. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2008;22(2):213–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Hall HI, Miller DR, Rogers JD, Bewerse B. Update on the incidence and mortality from melanoma in the United States. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1999;40(1):35–42.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Rigel DS, Friedman RJ, Kopf AW. The incidence of malignant melanoma in the United States: issues as we approach the 21st century. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1996;34(5 Pt 1):839–47.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Cronin KA, Ries LA, Edwards BK. The Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program of the National Cancer Institute. Cancer. 2014;120 Suppl 23:3755–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Milton GW, Shaw HM, Thompson JF, McCarthy WH. Cutaneous melanoma in childhood: incidence and prognosis. Australas J Dermatol. 1997;38 Suppl 1:S44–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Rao BN, Hayes FA, Pratt CB, Fleming ID, Kumar AP, Lobe T, et al. Malignant melanoma in children: its management and prognosis. J Pediatr Surg. 1990;25(2):198–203.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Spatz A, Ruiter D, Hardmeier T, Renard N, Wechsler J, Bailly C, et al. Melanoma in childhood: an EORTC-MCG multicenter study on the clinico-pathological aspects. Int J Cancer. 1996;68(3):317–24.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Berwick M. Evaluating early detection in the diagnosis of melanoma. Arch Dermatol. 2006;142(11):1485–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Schwartz JL, Wang TS, Hamilton TA, Lowe L, Sondak VK, Johnson TM. Thin primary cutaneous melanomas: associated detection patterns, lesion characteristics, and patient characteristics. Cancer. 2002;95(7):1562–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. MacKie RM. Melanoma and the dermatologist in the third millennium. Arch Dermatol. 2000;136(1):71–3.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Shafir R, Hiss J, Tsur H, Bubis JJ. The thin malignant melanoma: changing patterns of epidemiology and treatment. Cancer. 1982;50(4):817–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Dennis LK. Analysis of the melanoma epidemic, both apparent and real: data from the 1973 through 1994 surveillance, epidemiology, and end results program registry. Arch Dermatol. 1999;135(3):275–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Welch HG, Woloshin S, Schwartz LM. Skin biopsy rates and incidence of melanoma: population based ecological study. BMJ. 2005;331(7515):481.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Lens MB, Dawes M. Global perspectives of contemporary epidemiological trends of cutaneous malignant melanoma. Br J Dermatol. 2004;150(2):179–85.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Purdue MP, Freeman LE, Anderson WF, Tucker MA. Recent trends in incidence of cutaneous melanoma among US Caucasian young adults. J Invest Dermatol. 2008;128(12):2905–8.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Hodis E, Watson IR, Kryukov GV, Arold ST, Imielinski M, Theurillat JP, et al. A landscape of driver mutations in melanoma. Cell. 2012;150(2):251–63.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Swetter SM, Boldrick JC, Jung SY, Egbert BM, Harvell JD. Increasing incidence of lentigo maligna melanoma subtypes: northern California and national trends 1990-2000. J Invest Dermatol. 2005;125(4):685–91.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Anderson WF, Pfeiffer RM, Tucker MA, Rosenberg PS. Divergent cancer pathways for early-onset and late-onset cutaneous malignant melanoma. Cancer. 2009;115(18):4176–85.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Armstrong BK. Epidemiology of malignant melanoma: intermittent or total accumulated exposure to the sun? J Dermatol Surg Oncol. 1988;14(8):835–49.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Kricker A, Armstrong BK, Goumas C, Litchfield M, Begg CB, Hummer AJ, et al. Ambient UV, personal sun exposure and risk of multiple primary melanomas. Cancer Causes Control. 2007;18(3):295–304.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Ley RD. Ultraviolet radiation A-induced precursors of cutaneous melanoma in Monodelphis domestica. Cancer Res. 1997;57(17):3682–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Lea CS, Scotto JA, Buffler PA, Fine J, Barnhill RL, Berwick M. Ambient UVB and melanoma risk in the United States: a case-control analysis. Ann Epidemiol. 2007;17(6):447–53.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Ting W, Schultz K, Cac NN, Peterson M, Walling HW. Tanning bed exposure increases the risk of malignant melanoma. Int J Dermatol. 2007;46(12):1253–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Schneider JS, Moore 2nd DH, Sagebiel RW. Risk factors for melanoma incidence in prospective follow-up. The importance of atypical (dysplastic) nevi. Arch Dermatol. 1994;130(8):1002–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Tucker MA, Halpern A, Holly EA, Hartge P, Elder DE, Sagebiel RW, et al. Clinically recognized dysplastic nevi. A central risk factor for cutaneous melanoma. JAMA. 1997;277(18):1439–44.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Skender-Kalnenas TM, English DR, Heenan PJ. Benign melanocytic lesions: risk markers or precursors of cutaneous melanoma? J Am Acad Dermatol. 1995;33(6):1000–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Naldi L, Altieri A, Imberti GL, Gallus S, Bosetti C, La Vecchia C. Sun exposure, phenotypic characteristics, and cutaneous malignant melanoma. An analysis according to different clinico-pathological variants and anatomic locations (Italy). Cancer Causes Control. 2005;16(8):893–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Bevona C, Goggins W, Quinn T, Fullerton J, Tsao H. Cutaneous melanomas associated with nevi. Arch Dermatol. 2003;139(12):1620–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Ford D, Bliss JM, Swerdlow AJ, Armstrong BK, Franceschi S, Green A, et al. Risk of cutaneous melanoma associated with a family history of the disease. The International Melanoma Analysis Group (IMAGE). Int J Cancer. 1995;62(4):377–81.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Goldstein AM, Chan M, Harland M, Gillanders EM, Hayward NK, Avril MF, et al. High-risk melanoma susceptibility genes and pancreatic cancer, neural system tumors, and uveal melanoma across GenoMEL. Cancer Res. 2006;66(20):9818–28.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Bishop DT, Demenais F, Goldstein AM, Bergman W, Bishop JN, Bressac-de Paillerets B, et al. Geographical variation in the penetrance of CDKN2A mutations for melanoma. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2002;94(12):894–903.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Goldstein AM, Struewing JP, Chidambaram A, Fraser MC, Tucker MA. Genotype-phenotype relationships in U.S. melanoma-prone families with CDKN2A and CDK4 mutations. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2000;92(12):1006–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Busca R, Ballotti R. Cyclic AMP a key messenger in the regulation of skin pigmentation. Pigment Cell Res. 2000;13(2):60–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Balch CM, Gershenwald JE, Soong SJ, Thompson JF, Atkins MB, Byrd DR, et al. Final version of 2009 AJCC melanoma staging and classification. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27(36):6199–206.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Curtin JA, Fridlyand J, Kageshita T, Patel HN, Busam KJ, Kutzner H, et al. Distinct sets of genetic alterations in melanoma. N Engl J Med. 2005;353(20):2135–47.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Dai B, Cai X, Kong YY, Yang F, Shen XX, Wang LW, et al. Analysis of KIT expression and gene mutation in human acral melanoma: with a comparison between primary tumors and corresponding metastases/recurrences. Hum Pathol. 2013;44(8):1472–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Torres-Cabala CA, Wang WL, Trent J, Yang D, Chen S, Galbincea J, et al. Correlation between KIT expression and KIT mutation in melanoma: a study of 173 cases with emphasis on the acral-lentiginous/mucosal type. Mod Pathol. 2009;22(11):1446–56.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  41. Pawlik TM, Ross MI, Prieto VG, Ballo MT, Johnson MM, Mansfield PF, et al. Assessment of the role of sentinel lymph node biopsy for primary cutaneous desmoplastic melanoma. Cancer. 2006;106(4):900–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Sahin S, Rao B, Kopf AW, Lee E, Rigel DS, Nossa R, et al. Predicting ten-year survival of patients with primary cutaneous melanoma: corroboration of a prognostic model. Cancer. 1997;80(8):1426–31.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Halpern AC, Schuchter LM. Prognostic models in melanoma. Semin Oncol. 1997;24(1 Suppl 4):S2–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Barnhill RL, Fine JA, Roush GC, Berwick M. Predicting five-year outcome for patients with cutaneous melanoma in a population-based study. Cancer. 1996;78(3):427–32.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Karakousis CP, Emrich LJ, Rao U. Tumor thickness and prognosis in clinical stage I malignant melanoma. Cancer. 1989;64(7):1432–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Breslow A. Thickness, cross-sectional areas and depth of invasion in the prognosis of cutaneous melanoma. Ann Surg. 1970;172(5):902–8.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Schuchter L, Schultz DJ, Synnestvedt M, Trock BJ, Guerry D, Elder DE, et al. A prognostic model for predicting 10-year survival in patients with primary melanoma. The Pigmented Lesion Group. Ann Intern Med. 1996;125(5):369–75.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Berdeaux DH, Meyskens Jr FL, Parks B, Tong T, Loescher L, Moon TE. Cutaneous malignant melanoma. II. The natural history and prognostic factors influencing the development of stage II disease. Cancer. 1989;63(7):1430–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Prade M, Bognel C, Charpentier P, Gadenne C, Duvillard P, Sancho-Garnier H, et al. Malignant melanoma of the skin: prognostic factors derived from a multifactorial analysis of 239 cases. Am J Dermatopathol. 1982;4(5):411–2.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Guerry D, Synnestvedt M, Elder DE, Schultz D. Lessons from tumor progression: the invasive radial growth phase of melanoma is common, incapable of metastasis, and indolent. J Invest Dermatol. 1993;100(3):342S–5S.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Elder DE, Guerry D, Epstein MN, Zehngebot L, Lusk E, Van Horn M, et al. Invasive malignant melanomas lacking competence for metastasis. Am J Dermatopathol. 1984;6(Suppl):55–61.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Elder DE, Gimotty PA, Guerry D. Cutaneous melanoma: estimating survival and recurrence risk based on histopathologic features. Dermatol Ther. 2005;18(5):369–85.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Mihm Jr MC, Clark Jr WH, From L. The clinical diagnosis, classification and histogenetic concepts of the early stages of cutaneous malignant melanomas. N Engl J Med. 1971;284(19):1078–82.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Clark Jr WH, From L, Bernardino EA, Mihm MC. The histogenesis and biologic behavior of primary human malignant melanomas of the skin. Cancer Res. 1969;29(3):705–27.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Lefevre M, Vergier B, Balme B, Thiebault R, Delaunay M, Thomas L, et al. Relevance of vertical growth pattern in thin level II cutaneous superficial spreading melanomas. Am J Surg Pathol. 2003;27(6):717–24.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Thompson JF, Soong SJ, Balch CM, Gershenwald JE, Ding S, Coit DG, et al. Prognostic significance of mitotic rate in localized primary cutaneous melanoma: an analysis of patients in the multi-institutional American Joint Committee on Cancer melanoma staging database. J Clin Oncol. 2011;29(16):2199–205.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  57. Eldh J, Boeryd B, Peterson LE. Prognostic factors in cutaneous malignant melanoma in stage I. A clinical, morphological and multivariate analysis. Scand J Plast Reconstr Surg. 1978;12(3):243–55.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. In ‘t Hout FE, Haydu LE, Murali R, Bonenkamp JJ, Thompson JF, Scolyer RA. Prognostic importance of the extent of ulceration in patients with clinically localized cutaneous melanoma. Ann Surg. 2012;255(6):1165–70.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Scolyer RA, Shaw HM, Thompson JF, Li LX, Colman MH, Lo SK, et al. Interobserver reproducibility of histopathologic prognostic variables in primary cutaneous melanomas. Am J Surg Pathol. 2003;27(12):1571–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Guitart J, Lowe L, Piepkorn M, Prieto VG, Rabkin MS, Ronan SG, et al. Histological characteristics of metastasizing thin melanomas: a case-control study of 43 cases. Arch Dermatol. 2002;138(5):603–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Blessing K, McLaren KM, McLean A, Davidson P. Thin malignant melanomas (less than 1.5 mm) with metastasis: a histological study and survival analysis. Histopathology. 1990;17(5):389–95.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Morris KT, Busam KJ, Bero S, Patel A, Brady MS. Primary cutaneous melanoma with regression does not require a lower threshold for sentinel lymph node biopsy. Ann Surg Oncol. 2008;15(1):316–22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Trau H, Rigel DS, Harris MN, Kopf AW, Friedman RJ, Gumport SL, et al. Metastases of thin melanomas. Cancer. 1983;51(3):553–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Brogelli L, Reali UM, Moretti S, Urso C. The prognostic significance of histologic regression in cutaneous melanoma. Melanoma Res. 1992;2(2):87–91.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Kashani-Sabet M, Sagebiel RW, Ferreira CM, Nosrati M, Miller 3rd JR. Vascular involvement in the prognosis of primary cutaneous melanoma. Arch Dermatol. 2001;137(9):1169–73.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Kashani-Sabet M, Shaikh L, Miller 3rd JR, Nosrati M, Ferreira CM, Debs RJ, et al. NF-kappa B in the vascular progression of melanoma. J Clin Oncol. 2004;22(4):617–23.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Dadras SS, Paul T, Bertoncini J, Brown LF, Muzikansky A, Jackson DG, et al. Tumor lymphangiogenesis: a novel prognostic indicator for cutaneous melanoma metastasis and survival. Am J Pathol. 2003;162(6):1951–60.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Thorn M, Ponten F, Bergstrom R, Sparen P, Adami HO. Clinical and histopathologic predictors of survival in patients with malignant melanoma: a population-based study in Sweden. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1994;86(10):761–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Straume O, Akslen LA. Independent prognostic importance of vascular invasion in nodular melanomas. Cancer. 1996;78(6):1211–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Clark Jr WH, Elder DE, Guerry D, Braitman LE, Trock BJ, Schultz D, et al. Model predicting survival in stage I melanoma based on tumor progression. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1989;81(24):1893–904.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Petersson F, Diwan AH, Ivan D, Gershenwald JE, Johnson MM, Harrell R, et al. Immunohistochemical detection of lymphovascular invasion with D2-40 in melanoma correlates with sentinel lymph node status, metastasis and survival. J Cutan Pathol. 2009;36(11):1157–63.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Massi D, Borgognoni L, Franchi A, Martini L, Reali UM, Santucci M. Thick cutaneous malignant melanoma: a reappraisal of prognostic factors. Melanoma Res. 2000;10(2):153–64.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Sahni D, Robson A, Orchard G, Szydlo R, Evans AV, Russell-Jones R. The use of LYVE-1 antibody for detecting lymphatic involvement in patients with malignant melanoma of known sentinel node status. J Clin Pathol. 2005;58(7):715–21.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  74. Quinn MJ, Crotty KA, Thompson JF, Coates AS, O’Brien CJ, McCarthy WH. Desmoplastic and desmoplastic neurotropic melanoma: experience with 280 patients. Cancer. 1998;83(6):1128–35.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Lin D, Kashani-Sabet M, McCalmont T, Singer MI. Neurotropic melanoma invading the inferior alveolar nerve. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2005;53(2 Suppl 1):S120–2.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Barnhill RL, Bolognia JL. Neurotropic melanoma with prominent melanization. J Cutan Pathol. 1995;22(5):450–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Day Jr CL, Harrist TJ, Gorstein F, Sober AJ, Lew RA, Friedman RJ, et al. Malignant melanoma. Prognostic significance of “microscopic satellites” in the reticular dermis and subcutaneous fat. Ann Surg. 1981;194(1):108–12.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  78. Harrist TJ, Rigel DS, Day Jr CL, Sober AJ, Lew RA, Rhodes AR, et al. “Microscopic satellites” are more highly associated with regional lymph node metastases than is primary melanoma thickness. Cancer. 1984;53(10):2183–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Clemente CG, Mihm Jr MC, Bufalino R, Zurrida S, Collini P, Cascinelli N. Prognostic value of tumor infiltrating lymphocytes in the vertical growth phase of primary cutaneous melanoma. Cancer. 1996;77(7):1303–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Taylor RC, Patel A, Panageas KS, Busam KJ, Brady MS. Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes predict sentinel lymph node positivity in patients with cutaneous melanoma. J Clin Oncol. 2007;25(7):869–75.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Mandala M, Imberti GL, Piazzalunga D, Belfiglio M, Labianca R, Barberis M, et al. Clinical and histopathological risk factors to predict sentinel lymph node positivity, disease-free and overall survival in clinical stages I-II AJCC skin melanoma: outcome analysis from a single-institution prospectively collected database. Eur J Cancer. 2009;45(14):2537–45.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Mihm Jr MC, Clemente CG, Cascinelli N. Tumor infiltrating lymphocytes in lymph node melanoma metastases: a histopathologic prognostic indicator and an expression of local immune response. Lab Invest. 1996;74(1):43–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. McGovern VJ. The classification of melanoma and its relationship with prognosis. Pathology. 1970;2(2):85–98.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Trapl J, Palecek L, Ebel J, Kucera M. Tentative new classification of melanoma of the skin. Acta Derm Venereol. 1966;46(5):443–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Weinstock MA, Sober AJ. The risk of progression of lentigo maligna to lentigo maligna melanoma. Br J Dermatol. 1987;116(3):303–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Wayte DM, Helwig EB. Melanotic freckle of Hutchinson. Cancer. 1968;21(5):893–911.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Davis J, Pack GT, Higgins GK. Melanotic freckle of Hutchinson. Am J Surg. 1967;113(4):457–63.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Prieto VG, McNutt NS, Prioleau PG, Shea CR. Scaly erythematous lesion in a patient with extensive solar damage. Malignant melanoma in situ, amelanotic type. Arch Dermatol. 1996;132(10):1239. 42.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Rahbari H, Nabai H, Mehregan AH, Mehregan DA, Mehregan DR, Lipinski J. Amelanotic lentigo maligna melanoma: a diagnostic conundrum-- presentation of four new cases. Cancer. 1996;77(10):2052–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Reed JA, Shea CR. Lentigo maligna: melanoma in situ on chronically sun-damaged skin. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2011;135(7):838–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Tanaka M, Sawada M, Kobayashi K. Key points in dermoscopic differentiation between lentigo maligna and solar lentigo. J Dermatol. 2011;38(1):53–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Guitera P, Pellacani G, Crotty KA, Scolyer RA, Li LX, Bassoli S, et al. The impact of in vivo reflectance confocal microscopy on the diagnostic accuracy of lentigo maligna and equivocal pigmented and nonpigmented macules of the face. J Invest Dermatol. 2010;130(8):2080–91.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Yan S, Brennick JB. False-positive rate of the immunoperoxidase stains for MART1/MelanA in lymph nodes. Am J Surg Pathol. 2004;28(5):596–600.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Prieto VG, Shea CR. Immunohistochemistry of melanocytic proliferations. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2011;135(7):853–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Trejo O, Reed JA, Prieto VG. Atypical cells in human cutaneous re-excision scars for melanoma express p75NGFR, C56/N-CAM and GAP-43: evidence of early Schwann cell differentiation. J Cutan Pathol. 2002;29(7):397–406.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Torres JE, Torres SM, Sanchez JL. Melanoma in situ on facial skin damaged by sunlight. Am J Dermatopathol. 1994;16(2):171–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Beltraminelli H, Shabrawi-Caelen LE, Kerl H, Cerroni L. Melan-a-positive “pseudomelanocytic nests”: a pitfall in the histopathologic and immunohistochemical diagnosis of pigmented lesions on sun-damaged skin. Am J Dermatopathol. 2009;31(3):305–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Maize Jr JC, Resneck Jr JS, Shapiro PE, McCalmont TH, LeBoit PE. Ducking stray “magic bullets”: a Melan-A alert. Am J Dermatopathol. 2003;25(2):162–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. El Shabrawi-Caelen L, Kerl H, Cerroni L. Melan-A: not a helpful marker in distinction between melanoma in situ on sun-damaged skin and pigmented actinic keratosis. Am J Dermatopathol. 2004;26(5):364–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Buonaccorsi JN, Prieto VG, Torres-Cabala C, Suster S, Plaza JA. Diagnostic utility and comparative immunohistochemical analysis of MITF-1 and SOX10 to distinguish melanoma in situ and actinic keratosis: a clinicopathological and immunohistochemical study of 70 cases. Am J Dermatopathol. 2014;36(2):124–30.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Frangos JE, Duncan LM, Piris A, Nazarian RM, Mihm Jr MC, Hoang MP, et al. Increased diagnosis of thin superficial spreading melanomas: A 20-year study. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2012;67(3):387–94.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Kutzner H, Metzler G, Argenyi Z, Requena L, Palmedo G, Mentzel T, et al. Histological and genetic evidence for a variant of superficial spreading melanoma composed predominantly of large nests. Mod Pathol. 2012;25(6):838–45.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Pennacchia I, Garcovich S, Gasbarra R, Leone A, Arena V, Massi G. Morphological and molecular characteristics of nested melanoma of the elderly (evolved lentiginous melanoma). Virchows Arch. 2012;461(4):433–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Schimming TT, Grabellus F, Roner M, Pechlivanis S, Sucker A, Bielefeld N, et al. pHH3 immunostaining improves interobserver agreement of mitotic index in thin melanomas. Am J Dermatopathol. 2012;34(3):266–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Ladstein RG, Bachmann IM, Straume O, Akslen LA. Prognostic importance of the mitotic marker phosphohistone H3 in cutaneous nodular melanoma. J Invest Dermatol. 2012;132(4):1247–52.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Ikenberg K, Pfaltz M, Rakozy C, Kempf W. Immunohistochemical dual staining as an adjunct in assessment of mitotic activity in melanoma. J Cutan Pathol. 2012;39(3):324–30.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Tetzlaff MT, Curry JL, Ivan D, Wang WL, Torres-Cabala CA, Bassett RL, et al. Immunodetection of phosphohistone H3 as a surrogate of mitotic figure count and clinical outcome in cutaneous melanoma. Mod Pathol. 2013;26(9):1153–60.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Markovic SN, Erickson LA, Rao RD, Weenig RH, Pockaj BA, Bardia A, et al. Malignant melanoma in the 21st century, part 1: epidemiology, risk factors, screening, prevention, and diagnosis. Mayo Clin Proc. 2007;82(3):364–80.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Feibleman CE, Stoll H, Maize JC. Melanomas of the palm, sole, and nailbed: a clinicopathologic study. Cancer. 1980;46(11):2492–504.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Phan A, Touzet S, Dalle S, Ronger-Savle S, Balme B, Thomas L. Acral lentiginous melanoma: a clinicoprognostic study of 126 cases. Br J Dermatol. 2006;155(3):561–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Massi G, Vellone VG, Pagliarello C, Fabrizi G. Plantar melanoma that mimics melanocytic nevi: a report of 4 cases with lymph node metastases and with review of positive and negative controls. Am J Dermatopathol. 2009;31(2):117–31.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Bravo Puccio F, Chian C. Acral junctional nevus versus acral lentiginous melanoma in situ: a differential diagnosis that should be based on clinicopathologic correlation. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2011;135(7):847–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Fernandes JD, Hsieh R, de Freitas LA, Brandao MA, Lourenco SV, Sangueza M, et al. MAP Kinase Pathways: Molecular Roads to Primary Acral Lentiginous Melanoma. Am J Dermatopathol. 2015;37(12):892–7.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  114. Bastian BC, Kashani-Sabet M, Hamm H, Godfrey T, Moore 2nd DH, Brocker EB, et al. Gene amplifications characterize acral melanoma and permit the detection of occult tumor cells in the surrounding skin. Cancer Res. 2000;60(7):1968–73.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Beadling C, Jacobson-Dunlop E, Hodi FS, Le C, Warrick A, Patterson J, et al. KIT gene mutations and copy number in melanoma subtypes. Clin Cancer Res. 2008;14(21):6821–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Shen SS, Zhang PS, Eton O, Prieto VG. Analysis of protein tyrosine kinase expression in melanocytic lesions by tissue array. J Cutan Pathol. 2003;30(9):539–47.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Kim KB, Eton O, Davis DW, Frazier ML, McConkey DJ, Diwan AH, et al. Phase II trial of imatinib mesylate in patients with metastatic melanoma. Br J Cancer. 2008;99(5):734–40.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  118. Bergenmar M, Ringborg U, Mansson Brahme E, Brandberg Y. Nodular histogenetic type -- the most significant factor for thick melanoma: implications for prevention. Melanoma Res. 1998;8(5):403–11.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Chamberlain AJ, Fritschi L, Giles GG, Dowling JP, Kelly JW. Nodular type and older age as the most significant associations of thick melanoma in Victoria, Australia. Arch Dermatol. 2002;138(5):609–14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Busam KJ, Mujumdar U, Hummer AJ, Nobrega J, Hawkins WG, Coit DG, et al. Cutaneous desmoplastic melanoma: reappraisal of morphologic heterogeneity and prognostic factors. Am J Surg Pathol. 2004;28(11):1518–25.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Plaza JA, Bonneau P, Prieto V, Sangueza M, Mackinnon A, Suster D, et al. Desmoplastic Melanoma: An Updated Immunohistochemical Analysis of 40 cases with a Proposal for an Additional Panel of Stains for Diagnosis. J Cutan Pathol. 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  122. Harris GR, Shea CR, Horenstein MG, Reed JA, Burchette Jr JL, Prieto VG. Desmoplastic (sclerotic) nevus: an underrecognized entity that resembles dermatofibroma and desmoplastic melanoma. Am J Surg Pathol. 1999;23(7):786–94.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Koch MB, Shih IM, Weiss SW, Folpe AL. Microphthalmia transcription factor and melanoma cell adhesion molecule expression distinguish desmoplastic/spindle cell melanoma from morphologic mimics. Am J Surg Pathol. 2001;25(1):58–64.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Prieto-Granada CN, Wiesner T, Messina JL, Jungbluth AA, Chi P, Antonescu CR. Loss of H3K27me3 Expression Is a Highly Sensitive Marker for Sporadic and Radiation-induced MPNST. Am J Surg Pathol. 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  125. Reed RJ, Ichinose H, Clark Jr WH, Mihm Jr MC. Common and uncommon melanocytic nevi and borderline melanomas. Semin Oncol. 1975;2(2):119–47.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Schmoeckel C, Castro CE, Braun-Falco O. Nevoid malignant melanoma. Arch Dermatol Res. 1985;277(5):362–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. McNutt NS. “Triggered trap”: nevoid malignant melanoma. Semin Diagn Pathol. 1998;15(3):203–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Yelamos O, Busam KJ, Lee C. Meldi Sholl L. Merkel EA, et al. Morphologic clues and utility of fluorescence in situ hybridization for the diagnosis of nevoid melanoma. J Cutan Pathol: Amin SM; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  129. Sanchez AA, Wu TT, Prieto VG, Rashid A, Hamilton SR, Wang H. Comparison of primary and metastatic malignant melanoma of the esophagus: clinicopathologic review of 10 cases. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2008;132(10):1623–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Dong XD, DeMatos P, Prieto VG, Seigler HF. Melanoma of the gallbladder: a review of cases seen at Duke University Medical Center. Cancer. 1999;85(1):32–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Padhye A, D’Souza J. Oral malignant melanoma: A silent killer? J Indian Soc Periodontol. 2011;15(4):425–8.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  132. Shen ZY, Liu W, Bao ZX, Zhou ZT, Wang LZ. Oral melanotic macule and primary oral malignant melanoma: epidemiology, location involved, and clinical implications. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2011;112(1):e21–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. De Simone P, Silipo V, Buccini P, Mariani G, Marenda S, Eibenschutz L, et al. Vulvar melanoma: a report of 10 cases and review of the literature. Melanoma Res. 2008;18(2):127–33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Ragnarsson-Olding BK, Nilsson BR, Kanter-Lewensohn LR, Lagerlof B, Ringborg UK. Malignant melanoma of the vulva in a nationwide, 25-year study of 219 Swedish females: predictors of survival. Cancer. 1999;86(7):1285–93.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Savar A, Esmaeli B, Ho H, Liu S, Prieto VG. Conjunctival melanoma: local-regional control rates, and impact of high-risk histopathologic features. J Cutan Pathol. 2011;38(1):18–24.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Lyu J, Wu Y, Li C, Wang R, Song H, Ren G, et al. Mutation scanning of BRAF, NRAS, KIT, and GNAQ/GNA11 in oral mucosal melanoma: a study of 57 cases. J Oral Pathol Med. 2016;45(4):295–301.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Cazenave H, Maubec E, Mohamdi H, Grange F, Bressac-de Paillerets B, Demenais F, et al. Genital and anorectal mucosal melanoma is associated with cutaneous melanoma in patients and in families. Br J Dermatol. 2013;169(3):594–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Mehra T, Grozinger G, Mann S, Guenova E, Moos R, Rocken M, et al. Primary localization and tumor thickness as prognostic factors of survival in patients with mucosal melanoma. PLoS One. 2014;9(11), e112535.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  139. Keller DS, Thomay AA, Gaughan J, Olszanski A, Wu H, Berger AC, et al. Outcomes in patients with mucosal melanomas. J Surg Oncol. 2013;108(8):516–20.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Esmaeli B, Roberts D, Ross M, Fellman M, Cruz H, Kim SK, et al. Histologic features of conjunctival melanoma predictive of metastasis and death (an American Ophthalmological thesis). Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 2012;110:64–73.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  141. Brady KL, Mercurio MG, Brown MD. Malignant tumors of the penis. Dermatol Surg. 2013;39(4):527–47.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Lundin K, Schmidt G, Bonde C. Amalgam tattoo mimicking mucosal melanoma: a diagnostic dilemma revisited. Case Rep Dent. 2013;2013:787294.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  143. Davis T, Zembowicz A. Histological evolution of lentiginous melanoma: a report of five new cases. J Cutan Pathol. 2007;34(4):296–300.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Ferrara G, Zalaudek I, Argenziano G. Lentiginous melanoma: a distinctive clinicopathological entity. Histopathology. 2008;52(4):523–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. King R, Page RN, Googe PB, Mihm Jr MC. Lentiginous melanoma: a histologic pattern of melanoma to be distinguished from lentiginous nevus. Mod Pathol. 2005;18(10):1397–401.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Kossard S, Commens C, Symons M, Doyle J. Lentiginous dysplastic naevi in the elderly: a potential precursor for malignant melanoma. Australas J Dermatol. 1991;32(1):27–37.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Kossard S. Atypical lentiginous junctional naevi of the elderly and melanoma. Australas J Dermatol. 2002;43(2):93–101.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Torres-Cabala CA, Plaza JA, Diwan AH, Prieto VG. Severe architectural disorder is a potential pitfall in the diagnosis of small melanocytic lesions. J Cutan Pathol. 2010;37(8):860–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Newman MD, Mirzabeigi M, Gerami P. Chromosomal copy number changes supporting the classification of lentiginous junctional melanoma of the elderly as a subtype of melanoma. Mod Pathol. 2009;22(9):1258–62.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Cabrera R, Pulgar C, Daza F, Castro A, Prieto VG, Benedetto J, et al. Dermatoscopy of a primary dermal melanoma. Am J Dermatopathol. 2009;31(6):574–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Teow J, Chin O, Hanikeri M, Wood BA. Primary dermal melanoma: a West Australian cohort. ANZ J Surg. 2015;85(9):664–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Cassarino DS, Cabral ES, Kartha RV, Swetter SM. Primary dermal melanoma: distinct immunohistochemical findings and clinical outcome compared with nodular and metastatic melanoma. Arch Dermatol. 2008;144(1):49–56.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Sidiropoulos M, Obregon R, Cooper C, Sholl LM, Guitart J, Gerami P. Primary dermal melanoma: a unique subtype of melanoma to be distinguished from cutaneous metastatic melanoma: a clinical, histologic, and gene expression-profiling study. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2014;71(6):1083–92.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Plaza JA, Torres-Cabala C, Evans H, Diwan HA, Suster S, Prieto VG. Cutaneous metastases of malignant melanoma: a clinicopathologic study of 192 cases with emphasis on the morphologic spectrum. Am J Dermatopathol. 2010;32(2):129–36.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Conejo-Mir JS, Camacho F, Rios JJ, Gonzalez-Campora R. Epidermotropic metastasis coexisting with multiple primary cutaneous malignant melanomas. Dermatology. 1993;186(2):149–52.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Zembowicz A, McCusker M, Chiarelli C, Dei Tos AP, Granter SR, Calonje E, et al. Morphological analysis of nevoid melanoma: a study of 20 cases with a review of the literature. Am J Dermatopathol. 2001;23(3):167–75.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Campbell LB, Kreicher KL, Gittleman HR, Strodtbeck K, Barnholtz-Sloan J, Bordeaux JS. Melanoma Incidence in Children and Adolescents: Decreasing Trends in the United States. J Pediatr. 2015;166(6):1505–13.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Austin MT, Xing Y, Hayes-Jordan AA, Lally KP, Cormier JN. Melanoma incidence rises for children and adolescents: an epidemiologic review of pediatric melanoma in the United States. J Pediatr Surg. 2013;48(11):2207–13.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Barnhill RL, Flotte TJ, Fleischli M, Perez-Atayde A. Cutaneous melanoma and atypical Spitz tumors in childhood. Cancer. 1995;76(10):1833–45.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. McCarthy SW, Crotty KA, Palmer AA, Ng AB, McCarthy WH, Shaw HM. Cutaneous malignant melanoma in teenagers. Histopathology. 1994;24(5):453–61.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Paradela S, Fonseca E, Pita-Fernandez S, Kantrow SM, Diwan AH, Herzog C, et al. Prognostic factors for melanoma in children and adolescents: a clinicopathologic, single-center study of 137 Patients. Cancer. 2010;116(18):4334–44.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Paradela S, Fonseca E, Pita S, Kantrow SM, Goncharuk VN, Diwan H, et al. Spitzoid melanoma in children: clinicopathological study and application of immunohistochemistry as an adjunct diagnostic tool. J Cutan Pathol. 2009;36(7):740–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Paradela S, Fonseca E, Pita-Fernandez S, Kantrow SM, Goncharuk VN, Ivan D, et al. Melanoma under 18 years and pregnancy: report of three cases. Eur J Dermatol. 2010;20(2):186–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Paradela S, Fonseca E, Pita-Fernandez S, Prieto VG. Spitzoid and non-spitzoid melanoma in children: a prognostic comparative study. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2013;27(10):1214–21.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Cordoro KM, Gupta D, Frieden IJ, McCalmont T, Kashani-Sabet M. Pediatric melanoma: results of a large cohort study and proposal for modified ABCD detection criteria for children. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2013;68(6):913–25.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Neuhold JC, Friesenhahn J, Gerdes N, Krengel S. Case reports of fatal or metastasizing melanoma in children and adolescents: a systematic analysis of the literature. Pediatr Dermatol. 2015;32(1):13–22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Barnhill RL, Argenyi ZB, From L, Glass LF, Maize JC, Mihm Jr MC, et al. Atypical Spitz nevi/tumors: lack of consensus for diagnosis, discrimination from melanoma, and prediction of outcome. Hum Pathol. 1999;30(5):513–20.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. Gurbuz Y, Apaydin R, Muezzinoglu B, Buyukbabani N. A current dilemma in histopathology: atypical spitz tumor or Spitzoid melanoma? Pediatr Dermatol. 2002;19(2):99–102.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Spatz A, Calonje E, Handfield-Jones S, Barnhill RL. Spitz tumors in children: a grading system for risk stratification. Arch Dermatol. 1999;135(3):282–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Da Forno PD, Fletcher A, Pringle JH, Saldanha GS. Understanding spitzoid tumours: new insights from molecular pathology. Br J Dermatol. 2008;158(1):4–14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Barnhill RL. The Spitzoid lesion: rethinking Spitz tumors, atypical variants, ‘Spitzoid melanoma’ and risk assessment. Mod Pathol. 2006;19 Suppl 2:S21–33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Schmoeckel C, Wildi G, Schafer T. Spitz nevus versus malignant melanoma: spitz nevi predominate on the thighs in patients younger than 40 years of age, melanomas on the trunk in patients 40 years of age or older. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2007;56(5):753–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Murali R, Sharma RN, Thompson JF, Stretch JR, Lee CS, McCarthy SW, et al. Sentinel lymph node biopsy in histologically ambiguous melanocytic tumors with spitzoid features (so-called atypical spitzoid tumors). Ann Surg Oncol. 2008;15(1):302–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Gamblin TC, Edington H, Kirkwood JM, Rao UN. Sentinel lymph node biopsy for atypical melanocytic lesions with spitzoid features. Ann Surg Oncol. 2006;13(12):1664–70.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Chan MP, Chan MM, Tahan SR. Melanocytic nevi in pregnancy: histologic features and Ki-67 proliferation index. J Cutan Pathol. 2010;37(8):843–51.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. Reed JA, Loganzo Jr F, Shea CR, Walker GJ, Flores JF, Glendening JM, et al. Loss of expression of the p16/cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2 tumor suppressor gene in melanocytic lesions correlates with invasive stage of tumor progression. Cancer Res. 1995;55(13):2713–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Hilliard NJ, Krahl D, Sellheyer K. p16 expression differentiates between desmoplastic Spitz nevus and desmoplastic melanoma. J Cutan Pathol. 2009;36(7):753–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Mason A, Wititsuwannakul J, Klump VR, Lott J, Lazova R. Expression of p16 alone does not differentiate between Spitz nevi and Spitzoid melanoma. J Cutan Pathol. 2012;39(12):1062–74.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. Bastian BC, Olshen AB, LeBoit PE, Pinkel D. Classifying melanocytic tumors based on DNA copy number changes. Am J Pathol. 2003;163(5):1765–70.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  180. Bauer J, Bastian BC. Distinguishing melanocytic nevi from melanoma by DNA copy number changes: comparative genomic hybridization as a research and diagnostic tool. Dermatol Ther. 2006;19(1):40–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Bastian BC, Xiong J, Frieden IJ, Williams ML, Chou P, Busam K, et al. Genetic changes in neoplasms arising in congenital melanocytic nevi: differences between nodular proliferations and melanomas. Am J Pathol. 2002;161(4):1163–9.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  182. Gerami P, Mafee M, Lurtsbarapa T, Guitart J, Haghighat Z, Newman M. Sensitivity of fluorescence in situ hybridization for melanoma diagnosis using RREB1, MYB, Cep6, and 11q13 probes in melanoma subtypes. Arch Dermatol. 2010;146(3):273–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Gerami P, Wass A, Mafee M, Fang Y, Pulitzer MP, Busam KJ. Fluorescence in situ hybridization for distinguishing nevoid melanomas from mitotically active nevi. Am J Surg Pathol. 2009;33(12):1783–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Gerami P, Zembowicz A. Update on fluorescence in situ hybridization in melanoma: state of the art. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2011;135(7):830–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Gerami P, Beilfuss B, Haghighat Z, Fang Y, Jhanwar S, Busam KJ. Fluorescence in situ hybridization as an ancillary method for the distinction of desmoplastic melanomas from sclerosing melanocytic nevi. J Cutan Pathol. 2011;38(4):329–34.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. Gerami P, Geraminegad P. Fluorescence in situ hybridization as a diagnostic modality in melanocytic neoplasma. G Ital Dermatol Venereol. 2010;145(1):29–35.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Gerami P, Jewell SS, Morrison LE, Blondin B, Schulz J, Ruffalo T, et al. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) as an ancillary diagnostic tool in the diagnosis of melanoma. Am J Surg Pathol. 2009;33(8):1146–56.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. Gammon B, Beilfuss B, Guitart J, Busam KJ, Gerami P. Fluorescence in situ hybridization for distinguishing cellular blue nevi from blue nevus-like melanoma. J Cutan Pathol. 2011;38(4):335–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Vergier B, Prochazkova-Carlotti M, de la Fouchardiere A, Cerroni L, Massi D, De Giorgi V, et al. Fluorescence in situ hybridization, a diagnostic aid in ambiguous melanocytic tumors: European study of 113 cases. Mod Pathol. 2011;24(5):613–23.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Gaiser T, Kutzner H, Palmedo G, Siegelin MD, Wiesner T, Bruckner T, et al. Classifying ambiguous melanocytic lesions with FISH and correlation with clinical long-term follow up. Mod Pathol. 2010;23(3):413–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. North JP, Garrido MC, Kolaitis NA, LeBoit PE, McCalmont TH, Bastian BC. Fluorescence in situ hybridization as an ancillary tool in the diagnosis of ambiguous melanocytic neoplasms: a review of 804 cases. Am J Surg Pathol. 2014;38(6):824–31.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Requena C, Rubio L, Traves V, Sanmartin O, Nagore E, Llombart B, et al. Fluorescence in situ hybridization for the differential diagnosis between Spitz naevus and spitzoid melanoma. Histopathology. 2012;61(5):899–909.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  193. Gammon B, Beilfuss B, Guitart J, Gerami P. Enhanced detection of spitzoid melanomas using fluorescence in situ hybridization with 9p21 as an adjunctive probe. Am J Surg Pathol. 2012;36(1):81–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. Cesinaro AM, Schirosi L, Bettelli S, Migaldi M, Maiorana A. Alterations of 9p21 analysed by FISH and MLPA distinguish atypical spitzoid melanocytic tumours from conventional Spitz’s nevi but do not predict their biological behaviour. Histopathology. 2010;57(4):515–27.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  195. Clarke LE, Flake DD, Busam K, Cockerell C, Helm K, McNiff J, Reed JA, Tschen J, Kim J, Barnhill R, Elenitsas R, Prieto VG, Nelson J, Kimbrell H, Kolquist KA, Brown KL, Warf MB, Roa BB, Wenstrup RJ. An independent validation of a gene expression signature to differentiate malignant melanoma from benign melanocytic nevi. Cancer. 2017;23:617–28.

    Google Scholar 

  196. Al-Rohil RN. Curry JL. Nagarajan P, Ivan D, Aung PP, et al. Proliferation indices correlate with diagnosis and metastasis in diagnostically challenging melanocytic tumors. Hum Pathol: Torres-Cabala CA; 2016.

    Google Scholar 

  197. Lazova R, Seeley EH, Keenan M, Gueorguieva R, Caprioli RM. Imaging mass spectrometry--a new and promising method to differentiate Spitz nevi from Spitzoid malignant melanomas. Am J Dermatopathol. 2012;34(1):82–90.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Dermatopathology, Miraca Life Sciences, Dallas, TX, USA

    Jose A. Plaza

  2. MD Anderson Cancer Center, University of Texas, Houston, TX, USA

    Victor G. Prieto

Authors
  1. Jose A. Plaza
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Victor G. Prieto
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Plaza, J.A., Prieto, V.G. (2017). Melanoma. In: Pathology of Pigmented Skin Lesions. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-52721-4_7

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-52721-4_7

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-662-52719-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-662-52721-4

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation