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The Collapse of the Hittite Kingdom

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The End of Empires

Abstract

The collapse of the Hittite Kingdom can be dated to the second decade of the twelfth century BCE. The breakdown of the Hittite central system of control determined the fragmentation of the kingdom into smaller polities, and the complete disappearance of the Hittite language as well as of the cuneiform writing. The fall of Hatti might have been due to a series of factors, such as the endemic lack of labour forces, the institutional crisis, the loss of charisma of the royal house, and the pressure of newcomers along the coastal regions. We cannot exclude that the situation of the kingdom precipitated as result of the sudden death of the king, or the abandonment of the capital by the court.

In the present essay I call Ḫattušili II the brother of Muwatalli II; he is also known as Ḫattušili III in the secondary literature. His son and follower was Tutḫaliya III, who is also called Tutḫaliya IV.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Cline (2014).

  2. 2.

    Hornung et al. (2006).

  3. 3.

    Schneider (2010).

  4. 4.

    See de Martino (2018).

  5. 5.

    Seeher (1988).

  6. 6.

    See Schachner (2011: 112–113); Genz (2013).

  7. 7.

    See Genz (2013).

  8. 8.

    See Bemporad (2006: 74); Klinger (2015: 99).

  9. 9.

    See Kealhofer et al. (2009); Seeher (2018: 89–90).

  10. 10.

    See Seeher (1988); Genz (2013: 471).

  11. 11.

    See Genz (2003, 2004); Kealhofer et al. (2009).

  12. 12.

    See de Martino (2018) with bibliographical references; see also here Sect. 2.3.

  13. 13.

    See Klinger (2018).

  14. 14.

    See Imparati (1987); Bryce (2002: 100 and 104–107); Cammarosano (2018: 271–275).

  15. 15.

    See Klengel (2006: 6).

  16. 16.

    See Imparati (1974).

  17. 17.

    See de Martino (2017).

  18. 18.

    See del Monte (2008: 116–117).

  19. 19.

    See del Monte (1993: 66–67); Klinger (2018).

  20. 20.

    See the plague prayers of Muršili II. Singer (2002).

  21. 21.

    See Yoffee (2010: 192); Concerning the costs of the civil war between Assyria and Babylonia at the end of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Furthermore, Muršili III seems to have also dissipated a huge amount of wealth in the form of generous donations to cult institutions and members of the aristocracy, with the aim of acquiring the protection of the gods and the support of the nobles against his uncle, who was trying to remove him from the throne, see de Martino (2017).

  22. 22.

    See Poetto (1993); Hawkins (1995: 66–85).

  23. 23.

    The first of these two expeditions was presumably conducted by Šuppiluliuma, during the reign of his father, King Tutḫaliya III, see Bemporad (2014).

  24. 24.

    See Güterbock (1967); Bemporad (2014).

  25. 25.

    Singer (2000).

  26. 26.

    See Singer and Gestoso-Singer (2014).

  27. 27.

    See Sherratt (1998).

  28. 28.

    Knapp and Manning (2016).

  29. 29.

    See Kaniewski et al. (2015).

  30. 30.

    See Knapp and Manning (2016: 113–118).

  31. 31.

    Knapp and Manning (2016: 137).

  32. 32.

    See Kuzucuoğlu (2015: 32).

  33. 33.

    See Roberts (2017).

  34. 34.

    See Seeher (2007); Dörfler et al. (2011: 108–113); Schachner (2011: 234–242).

  35. 35.

    See Hüser (2007); Schachner (2011: 227–234, 2012); Schachner and Wittenberg 2012.

  36. 36.

    See Roberts (2017); Schachner (2017).

  37. 37.

    See Klengel (1974); Singer (1999: 715–719); Yakar (2006); Divon (2008); Cline (2014: 142–147).

  38. 38.

    See de Martino (2018).

  39. 39.

    See Yon (1989); Singer (1999: 719–722); Gilan (2013); Knapp and Manning (2016).

  40. 40.

    See de Martino (2018), for a review of the most recent literature on the “Sea Peoples”.

  41. 41.

    See Redford (2018).

  42. 42.

    See French (2009); Middelton (2010); Wiener (2014).

  43. 43.

    See Betancourt (2000).

  44. 44.

    See Mountjoy (2015).

  45. 45.

    See Adams and Cohen (2013); Redford (2018: 113–114); de Martino (2018).

  46. 46.

    See for example, Yon (1989); Singer (2000); Whittaker (2017).

  47. 47.

    As noted above, Singer (2017: 623) and Forlanini (2017: 139) argued that Kizzuwatna was no longer controlled by the Hittites.

  48. 48.

    See Glatz (2013).

  49. 49.

    See Beckman (2014); Beal (2014).

  50. 50.

    See Singer (1991: 165–168).

  51. 51.

    See Singer (1985); Bányai (2011); Yamada (2011); Bemporad (2002), who argued that the Hittite army was led by Prince Šuppiluliuma.

  52. 52.

    See Dietrich (2003); Devecchi (2019).

  53. 53.

    Instead, d’Alfonso (2006: 304ff.) assumed that the receiver of this letter was the pharaoh.

  54. 54.

    See Beckman et al. (2011: 68).

  55. 55.

    See Mora and Giorgieri (2004); Cancik-Kirschbaum (2008); Singer (2008); Giorgieri (2011).

  56. 56.

    See the treaty concluded between Tutḫaliya III and Šaušgamuwa; see also Kitchen and Lawrence (2012: 595–608); Devecchi (2015: 225–232).

  57. 57.

    See van den Hout (1995: 206–211); Tani (2002).

  58. 58.

    Glatz (2013); Devecchi (2019).

  59. 59.

    See Klengel (1992: 140); Glatz (2013: 33).

  60. 60.

    See Ehringhaus (2005: 101–107).

  61. 61.

    See Goedegebuure (2012), with previous literature.

  62. 62.

    Singer (1996).

  63. 63.

    Singer (1996: 648).

  64. 64.

    See Otten (1988).

  65. 65.

    See Matessi (2016: 648).

  66. 66.

    See Bachmann (2017), concerning the Eflatun Pınar basin.

  67. 67.

    As Matessi (2016: 13–14) argued.

  68. 68.

    See de Martino (2010).

  69. 69.

    See Hawkins (1998: 21–22).

  70. 70.

    See Beckman et al. (2011: 123–133).

  71. 71.

    See Stefanini (1965).

  72. 72.

    See Singer (1985).

  73. 73.

    See Bemporad (2002) on the question whether this document and also the battle of Niḫriya date to the reign of either Tutḫaliya III or Šuppiluliuma II.

  74. 74.

    See Glatz (2013).

  75. 75.

    On the polity of Tummana see Cammarosano and Marizza (2015).

  76. 76.

    See Ehringhaus (2005: 70–80).

  77. 77.

    See Glatz and Plourde (2011).

  78. 78.

    Glatz and Plourde (2011: 50).

  79. 79.

    See de Martino (2010).

  80. 80.

    See Mora and D’Alfonso (2012: 395); Matessi (2016).

  81. 81.

    See de Martino (2018) with previous literature.

  82. 82.

    See de Martino (2018).

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  1. Dipartimento di Studi Storici, Università di Torino, Turin, Italy

    Stefano de Martino

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  1. Stefano de Martino
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Correspondence to Stefano de Martino .

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  1. Stiftung Universität Hildesheim, Hildesheim, Germany

    Michael Gehler

  2. Universität Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria

    Robert Rollinger

  3. University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

    Philipp Strobl

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de Martino, S. (2022). The Collapse of the Hittite Kingdom. In: Gehler, M., Rollinger, R., Strobl, P. (eds) The End of Empires. Universal- und kulturhistorische Studien. Studies in Universal and Cultural History. Springer VS, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-36876-0_4

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