Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Defining Homo erectus

  • Reference work entry
  • First Online:
Handbook of Paleoanthropology

Abstract

Pithecanthropus (now Homo) erectus was first recognized as a species by Eugène Dubois in the 1890s from fossils at the Indonesian site of Trinil. Additional finds from Indonesia and then China expanded the morphological, geographic, and temporal bounds of this species, but it was not until 1960 that H. erectus was recognized in Africa. Since that time, H. erectus has become among the best sampled species in human evolution and has also come to include fossils from Eurasia and possibly South Africa. These fossils are united by a shared neurocranial shape and the presence of a large number of discrete traits. Yet, there is considerable variation among and within fossil assemblages, which has been interpreted within the framework of a long-lived and polytypic species by some, and as indicative of multiple species by others. This chapter reviews the morphological features of the skull that serve to define H. erectus, as well as the extent and implications of variation across the fossil hypodigm. Sometimes the smaller and less derived African and Georgian fossils have been assigned to a separate species, H. ergaster. Yet, geometric morphometric analysis indicates that the degree of cranial shape variation for the entire sample (including African, Georgian, Indonesian, and Chinese fossils) is within the range of many single primate species, and the variation between Indonesian and Chinese fossils is of the same magnitude as that between African/Georgian and Asian fossils. Therefore, the single-species model for H. erectus cannot be rejected on the basis of cranial shape. However, not every fossil assigned to this species is a perfect fit, and some of the most recent additions to H. erectus expand the range of variation in directions that are unexpected based on established patterns of intraspecific variation. The analysis of shape has further confirmed that much of the cranial shape variation present within the species is partitioned among circumscribed temporo-geographic groups. Additional work is necessary to better understand the utility of discrete traits for systematic research and their distribution in the expanded Pleistocene Homo fossil record.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 949.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 1,099.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • An Z, Ho CK (1989) New magnetostratigraphic dates of Lantian Homo erectus. Quat Res 32:213–221

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • An Z, Gao W, Zhu Y, Kan X, Wang J, Sun J, Wei M (1990) Magnetostratigraphic dates of Lantian Homo erectus. Acta Anthropol Sin 9:1–7 (in Chinese, with English abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews P (1984) An alternative interpretation of the characters used to define Homo erectus. Cour Forsch-Inst Senckenberg 69:167–175

    Google Scholar 

  • AntĂłn SC (2002) Evolutionary significance of cranial variation in Asian Homo erectus. Am J Phys Anthropol 118:801–828

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • AntĂłn SC (2003) Natural history of Homo erectus. Yearb Phys Anthropol 46:126–170

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • AntĂłn SC (2004) The face of Olduvai Hominid 12. J Hum Evol 46(3):335–345

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arambourg C (1954) L’hominien fossile de Ternifine (AlgĂ©rie). CR Hebd Acad Sci 239:893–895

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arif J, Baba H, Kaifu, Y (2005) The skull IX (Tjf-1993.05) as one of the variant examples of Asian Homo erectus from Indonesia. PaleoAnthropology 2005:A49(Abst)

    Google Scholar 

  • Asfaw B, Gilbert WH, Beyene Y, Hart WK, Renne PR, WoldeGabriel G, Vrba ES, White TD (2002) Remains of Homo erectus from Bouri, Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature 416:317–320

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baab KL (2007) Cranial shape variation in Homo erectus. City University of New York, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Baab KL (2008a) A re-evaluation of the taxonomic affinities of the early Homo cranium KNM-ER 42700. J Hum Evol 55:741–746

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baab KL (2008b) The taxonomic implications of cranial shape variation in Homo erectus. J Hum Evol 54(6):827–847

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baab KL (2010) Cranial shape in Asian Homo erectus: geographic, anagenetic, and size-related variation. In: Norton CJ, Braun DR (eds) Asian paleoanthropology: from Africa to China and Beyond. Springer, New York, pp 57–79

    Google Scholar 

  • Baab KL, Freidline SE, Wang SL, Hanson T (2010) Relationship of cranial robusticity to cranial form, geography and climate in Homo sapiens. Am J Phys Anthropol 141:97–115

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baab KL, McNulty KP, Harvati K (2013) Homo floresiensis contextualized: a geometric morphometric comparative analysis of fossil and pathological human samples. PLoS ONE 8(7):e69119

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baba H, Aziz F, Kaifu Y, Suwa G, Kono RT, Jacob T (2003a) Homo erectus calvarium from the Pleistocene of Java. Science 299:1384–1388

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baba H, Aziz F, Kaifu Y, Suwa G, Kono RT, Jacob T (2003b) Homo erectus calvarium from the Pleistocene of Java. Science 299(5611):1384–1388

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Balzeau A (2006) Are thickened cranial bones and equal participation of the three structural bone layers autapomorphic traits of Homo erectus? Bulletins et MĂ©moires de la SociĂ©tĂ© d’Anthropologie de Paris 18(3–4):145–163

    Google Scholar 

  • Balzeau A (2013) Thickened cranial vault and parasagittal keeling: correlated traits and autapomorphies of Homo erectus? J Hum Evol 64:631–644

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • BermĂşdez de Castro JM, Arsuaga JL, Carbonell E, Rosas A, Martınez I, Mosquera M (1997) A hominid from the lower Pleistocene of Atapuerca, Spain: possible ancestor to Neandertals and modern humans. Science 276(5317):1392–1395

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • BermĂşdez de Castro JM, Rosas A, Nicolás ME (1999) Dental remains from Atapuerca-TD6 (Gran Dolina site, Burgos, Spain). J Hum Evol 37(3):523–566

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bilsborough A (2000) Chronology, variability and evolution in Homo erectus. Var Evol 8:5–30

    Google Scholar 

  • Brain CK (1993) Swartkrans: a cave’s chronicle of early man, vol 8. Transvaal Museum, Pretoria

    Google Scholar 

  • Bräuer G (1990) The occurrence of some controversial Homo erectus cranial features in the Zhoukoudian and East African hominids. Acta Anthropol Sinica 9:352–358

    Google Scholar 

  • Bräuer G (1994) How different are Asian and African Homo erectus? Cour Forsch-Inst Senckenberg 171:301–318

    Google Scholar 

  • Bräuer G, Mbua E (1992) Homo erectus features used in cladistics and their variability in Asian and African hominids. J Hum Evol 22:79–108

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown P (1994) Cranial vault thickness in Asian Homo erectus and Homo sapiens. Cour Forsch-Inst Senckenberg 171:33–46

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown P (2001) Chinese Middle Pleistocene hominids and modern human origins. In: Barham L, Brown KR (eds) Human roots – Africa and Asia in the Middle Pleistocene. Western Academic and Specialist Press, Bristol, pp 135–145

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown P, Maeda T (2009) Liang Bua Homo floresiensis mandibles and mandibular teeth: a contribution to the comparative morphology of a new hominin species. J Hum Evol 57(5):571–596

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown FH, McDougall I (1993) Geologic setting and age. In: Walker A, Leakey R (eds) The Nariokotome Homo erectus Skeleton. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, pp 9–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown F, Harris J, Leakey R, Walker A (1985) Early Homo erectus skeleton from west Lake Turkana, Kenya. Nature 316(6031):788–792

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carbonell E, BermĂşdez de Castro JM, Arsuaga JL, Allue E, Bastir M, Benito A, Cáceres I, Canals T, DĂ­ez JC, van der Made J, Mosquera M, OllĂ© A, PĂ©rez-González A, RodrĂ­guez J, RodrĂ­guez XP, Rosas A, Rosell J, Sala R, VallverdĂş J, VergĂ©s JM (2005) An early Pleistocene hominin mandible from Atapuerca-TD6, Spain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102(16):5674–5678

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen T-M, Yang Q, Hu Y-Q, Bao W-B, Li T-Y (1997) ESR dating of tooth enamel from Yunxian Homo erectus site, China. Quat Sci Rev 16(3–5):455–458

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Curnoe D (2006) Odontometric systematic assessment of the Swartkrans SK 15 mandible. HOMO 57(4):263–294

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Lumley M-A, Gabounia L, Vekua A, Lordkipandize D (2006) Les restes humains du Pliocène final et du dĂ©but du PlĂ©istocène infĂ©rieur de Dmanissi, GĂ©orgie (1991–2000). I – Les crânes, D 2280, D 2282, D 2700. Anthropologie 110:1–110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Lumley H, Khatib S, Mestour B, Gattacceca J, Faure O, Rochette P, Vadeboin F, Feng X (2008) Étude du palĂ©omagnĂ©tisme du site de l’Homme de Yunxian. In: de Lumley H, Li T (eds) Le site de l’Homme de Yunxian. Quyuanhekou, Qingqu, Yunxian, Province du Hubei. CNRS Ă©ditions et Ă©ditions Recherche sur les Civilisations, Paris, pp 185–236

    Google Scholar 

  • Delson E, Harvati K, Reddy D, Marcus LF, Mowbray K, Sawyer GJ, Jacob T, Marquez S (2001) The Sambungmacan 3 Homo erectus calvaria: a comparative morphometric and morphological analysis. Anat Rec 262(4):380–397

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dennell R, Roebroeks W (2005) An Asian perspective on early human dispersal from Africa. Nature 438(7071):1099–1104

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dubois E (1894) Pithecanthropus erectus, Eine menschenähnliche Ăśbergangsform aus Java. Landesdruckerei, Batavia

    Google Scholar 

  • Dubois E (1924) On the principal characters of the cranium and the brain, the mandible and the teeth of Pithecanthropus erectus. Proc Koninkl Akad Wetensch Amsterdam 27:265–278

    Google Scholar 

  • Etler DA (1996) The fossil evidence for human evolution in Asia. Annu Rev Anthropol 25:275–301

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Etler DA (2004) Homo erectus in East Asia: human ancestor or evolutionary dead-end? Athena Rev 4:37–50

    Google Scholar 

  • Feibel CS, Brown FH, McDougall I (1989) Stratigraphic context of fossil hominids from the Omo Group deposits, northern Turkana Basin, Kenya and Ethiopia. Am J Phys Anthropol 78:595–622

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferring R, Oms O, AgustĂ­ J, Berna F, Nioradze M, Shelia T, Tappen M, Vekua A, Zhvania D, Lordkipanidze D (2011) Earliest human occupations at Dmanisi (Georgian Caucasus) dated to 1.85–1.78 Ma. Proc Natl Acad Sci 108(26):10432–10436

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gabounia L, de Lumley M-A, Vekua A, Lordkipandize D, de Lumley H (2002) DĂ©couverte d’un nouvel hominidĂ© Ă  Dmanissi (Transcaucasie, GĂ©orgie). CR Palevol 1:243–253

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gabunia L (1992) Der Menschliche Unterkiefer von Dmanisi. Jahrbuch RGZM 39:185–208

    Google Scholar 

  • Gabunia L, Vekua AK (1995) A Plio-Pleistocene hominid from Dmanisi, East Georgia, Caucasus. Nature 373:509–512

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gabunia L, Vekua A, Lordkipanidze D (1999) A hominid metatarsal from Dmanisi (Eastern Georgia). Anthropos (Brno) 37(2):163–166

    Google Scholar 

  • Gabunia L, Vekua A, Lordkipanidze D, Swisher CC III, Ferring R, Justus A, Nioradze M, Tvalchrelidze M, AntĂłn SC, Bosinski G (2000) Earliest Pleistocene hominid cranial remains from Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia: taxonomy, geological setting, and age. Science 288(5468):1019–1025

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gower JC (1975) Generalized Procrustes analysis. Psychometrika 40:33–51

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grimaud-HervĂ© D, Widianto H, DĂ©troit F, Jacob T (2005) The new skull of Bukuran from Sangiran dome, Java, Indonesia. PaleoAnthropology (2005):A46(Abst)

    Google Scholar 

  • Grimaud-HervĂ© D, Widianto H, DĂ©troit F, SĂ©mah F (2012) Comparative morphological and morphometric description of the hominin calvaria from Bukuran (Sangiran, Central Java, Indonesia). J Hum Evol 63(5):637–652

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grine FE, Jungers WL, Schultz J (1996) Phenetic affinities among early Homo crania from East and South Africa. J Hum Evol 30(3):189–225

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Groves CP (1989) A theory of human and primate evolution. Clarendon Press Oxford, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • GrĂĽn R, Huang P-H, Huang W, McDermott F, Thorne A, Stringer CB, Yan G (1998) ESR and U-series analyses of teeth from the palaeoanthropological site of Hexian, Anhui Province, China. J Hum Evol 34(6):555–564

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison T (1993) Cladistic concepts and the species problem in hominoid evolution. In: Kimbel WH, Martin LB (eds) Species, species concepts, and primate evolution. Plenum Press, New York, pp 346–371

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawks J, Oh S, Hunley K, Dobson S, Cabana G, Dayalu P, Wolpoff M (2000) An Australasian test of the recent African origin theory using the WLH-50 calvarium. J Hum Evol 39:1–22

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hay RL (1990) Olduvai Gorge: a case history in the interpretation of hominid paleoenvironments in East Africa, establishment of a geologic framework for paleoanthropology. Geological Society of America, Boulder

    Google Scholar 

  • Howell FC (1978) Hominidae. In: Maglio VJ, Cooke HBS (eds) Evolution of African mammals. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, pp 154–248

    Google Scholar 

  • Howells WW (1980) Homo erectus – who, when and where: a survey. Yearb Phys Anthropol 23:1–23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huang PH, GrĂĽn R (1998) Study on burying ages of fossil teeth from Yuanmou Man site, Yunnan province, China. Acta Anthropol Sin 17:165–170 (in Chinese with English abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Hublin J-J (1986) Some comments on the diagnostic features of Homo erectus. Anthropos (Brno) 23:175–187

    Google Scholar 

  • Hublin J-J (1987) Les CharactĂ©res dĂ©rivĂ©s d’Homo erectus: RĂ©lation avec l’augmentation de la masse squelettique. In: Giacobini G (ed) Hominidae: proceedings of the second international congress of human paleontology. Jaca, Torino, pp 199–204

    Google Scholar 

  • Hublin J-J (2001) Northwestern African Middle Pleistocene hominids and their bearing on the emergence of Homo sapiens. In: Barnham L, Robson-Brown K (eds) Human roots: Africa and Asia in the Middle Pleistocene. Western Academic and Specialist Press Limited, Bristol, pp 99–121

    Google Scholar 

  • Huffman OF (2001) Geologic context and age of the Perning/Mojokerto Homo erectus, East Java. J Hum Evol 40:353–362

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huffman OF, Shipman P, Hertler C, de Vos J, Aziz F (2005) Historical evidence of the 1936 Mojokerto skull discovery, East Java. J Hum Evol 48:321–363

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huffman OF, Zaim Y, Kappelman J, Ruez DR Jr, de Vos J, Rizal Y, Aziz F, Hertler C (2006) Relocation of the 1936 Mojokerto skull discovery site near Perning, East Java. J Hum Evol 50:431–451

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hyodo M, Nakaya H, Urabe A, Saegusa H, Shunrong X, Jiyun Y, Xuepin J (2002) Paleomagnetic dates of hominid remains from Yuanmou, China, and other Asian sites. J Hum Evol 43(1):27–41

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Indriati E, AntĂłn SC (2008) Earliest Indonesian facial and dental remains from Sangiran, Java: a description of Sangiran 27. Anthropol Sci 116(3):219–229

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Indriati E, Swisher CC III, Lepre C, Quinn RL, Suriyanto RA, Hascaryo AT, GrĂĽn R, Feibel CS, Pobiner BL, Aubert M, Lees W, AntĂłn SC (2011) The age of the 20 meter Solo River terrace, Java, Indonesia and the survival of Homo erectus in Asia. PLoS ONE 6(6):e21562

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacob T (1980) The Pithecanthropus of Indonesia: phenotype, genetics and ecology. In: Königson LK (ed) Current argument on Early Man. Pergamon, Oxford, pp 170–179

    Google Scholar 

  • JelĂ­nek J (1982) The east and southeast Asian way of regional evolution. Anthropos (Brno) 21:195–212

    Google Scholar 

  • Jolly CJ (2001) A proper study for mankind: analogies from the papionin monkeys and their implications for human evolution. Yearb Phys Anthropol 44:177–204

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jungers WL (2009) Interlimb proportions in humans and fossil hominins: variability and scaling. In: Grine FE, Fleagle JG, Leakey RE (eds) The first humans: origin and early evolution of the genus Homo. Springer, New York, pp 93–98

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Jungers WL, Harcourt-Smith WEH, Wunderlich RE, Tocheri MW, Larson SG, Sutikna T, Due RA, Morwood MJ (2009) The foot of Homo floresiensis. Nature 459(7243):81–84

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaifu Y, Baba H, Aziz F, Indriati E, Schrenk F, Jacob T (2005) Taxonomic affinities and evolutionary history of the early Pleistocene hominids of Java: dentognathic evidence. Am J Phys Anthropol 128(4):709–726

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaifu Y, Aziz F, Indriati E, Jacob T, Kurniawan I, Baba H (2008) Cranial morphology of Javanese Homo erectus: new evidence for continuous evolution, specialization, and terminal extinction. J Hum Evol 55(4):551–580

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaifu Y, Zaim Y, Baba H, Kurniawan I, Kubo D, Rizal Y, Arif J, Aziz F (2011) New reconstruction and morphological description of a Homo erectus cranium: skull IX (Tjg-1993.05) from Sangiran, Central Java. J Hum Evol 61(3):270–294

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kappelman J, Alçiçek MC, Kazancı N, Schultz M, Ă–zkul M, Ĺžen Ĺž (2008) First Homo erectus from Turkey and implications for migrations into temperate Eurasia. Am J Phys Anthropol 135(1):110–116

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kelley J, Plavcan JM (1998) A simulation test of hominoid species number at Lufeng, China: implications for the use of the coefficient of variation in paleotaxonomy. J Hum Evol 35(6):577–596

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy G (1991) On the autapomorphic traits of Homo erectus. J Hum Evol 20:375–412

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kidder JH, Durband AC (2004a) A re-evaluation of the metric diversity within Homo erectus. J Hum Evol 46(3):297–313

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kidder JH, Durband AC (2004b) A re-evaluation of the metric diversity within Homo erectus. J Hum Evol 46(3):299–315

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kramer A (1993) Human taxonomic diversity in the Pleistocene: does Homo erectus represent multiple hominid species? Am J Phys Anthropol 91(2):161–171

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kramer A, Djubiantono T, Aziz F, Bogard JS, Weeks RA, Weinand DC, Hames WE, Michael Elam J, Durband AC (2005) The first hominid fossil recovered from West Java, Indonesia. J Hum Evol 48(6):661–667

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lahr MM, Wright RSV (1996) The question of robusticity and the relationship between cranial size and shape in Homo sapiens. J Hum Evol 31:157–191

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larick R, Ciochon RL, Zaim Y, Suminto S, Rizal Y, Reagan M, Heizler M (2001) Early Pleistocene 40Ar/39Ar ages for Bapang Formation hominins, Central Java, Indonesia. Proc Natl Acad Sci 98:4866–4871

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Le Gros Clark WE (1964) The fossil evidence for human evolution. University of Chicago Press, Chicago

    Google Scholar 

  • Leakey LSB (1961) New finds at Olduvai Gorge. Nature 189:649–650

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leakey REF (1976) New hominid fossils from the Koobi Fora formation in Northern Kenya. Nature 261:574–576

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leakey REF, Walker AC (1985) Further hominids from the Plio-Pleistocene of Koobi Fora, Kenya. Am J Phys Anthropol 67(2):135–163

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leakey MG, Spoor F, Brown FH, Gathogo PN, Leakey LN (2003) A new hominin calvaria from Ileret (Kenya). Am J Phys Anthropol 36:136, Suppl

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee SH (2005) Is variation in the cranial capacity of the Dmanisi sample too high to be from a single species? Am J Phys Anthropol 127:263–266

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee S-H, Wolpoff MH (2009) The pattern of evolution in Pleistocene human brain size. Paleobiology 29:186–196

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leigh SR (1992) Cranial capacity evolution in Homo erectus and early Homo sapiens. Am J Phys Anthropol 87(1):1–13

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li T, Etler DA (1992) New Middle Pleistocene hominid crania from Yunxian in China. Nature 357:404–407

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li HY, Mei Y (1983) The upper age of Hexian Homo erectus. Chinese Sci Bull 28:703

    Google Scholar 

  • Li P, Qian F, Ma XH, Pu QY, Na LS, Ju SQ (1976) A preliminary chronological study on fossils of Homo erectus yuanmouensis using a paleomagnetic technique. Sci Sinica 6:579–591

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu D, Bada JL, Kminek G (2002) Amino acid racemization dating of fossil mammal teeth. In: Wu R, Li X, Wu X, Mu X (eds) Homo erectus from Nanjing. Jiangsu Science and Technology Publishing House, Nanjing, p 310

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu W, Zhang Y, Wu X (2005) Middle Pleistocene human cranium from Tangshan (Nanjing), Southeast China: a new reconstruction and comparisons with Homo erectus from Eurasia and Africa. Am J Phys Anthropol 127(3):253–262

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lordkipanidze D, Vekua A, Ferring R, Rightmire GP, Agusti J, Kiladze G, Mouskhelishvili A, Nioradze M, Ponce de LeĂłn MS, Tappen M, Zollikofer CPE (2005) The earliest toothless hominin skull. Nature 434:717

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lordkipanidze D, Jashashvili T, Vekua A, Ponce de LeĂłn MS, Zollikofer CPE, Rightmire GP, Pontzer H, Ferring R, Oms O, Tappen M, Bukhsianidze M, Agusti J, Kahlke R, Kiladze G, Martinez-Navarro B, Mouskhelishvili A, Nioradze M, Rook L (2007) Postcranial evidence from early Homo from Dmanisi, Georgia. Nature 449(7160):305–310

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lordkipanidze D, Ponce de LeĂłn MS, Margvelashvili A, Rak Y, Rightmire GP, Vekua A, Zollikofer CPE (2013) A complete skull from Dmanisi, Georgia, and the evolutionary biology of early Homo. Science 342:326–331

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lu Z, Huang Y, Li P, Meng Z (1989) Yiyuan fossil man. Acta Anthropol Sinica 8:301–313

    Google Scholar 

  • Macaluso PJ, Hopwood DE, Kioukis G, Malit N, Nevgloski AJ, McCausland-Gaines JB, Lordkipanidze D (2004) Cranial variation among the Plio-Pleistocene hominins from Dmanisi, Georgia. Am J Phys Anthropol 123:139, Suppl

    Google Scholar 

  • Maier W, Nkini A (1984) Olduvai Hominid 9: new results of investigation. Cour Forsch-Inst Senckenberg 69:123–130

    Google Scholar 

  • Márquez S, Mowbray K, Sawyer G, Jacob T, Silvers A (2001) New fossil hominid calvaria from Indonesia – Sambungmacan 3. Anat Rec 262(4):344–368

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MartinĂłn-Torres M, BermĂşdez de Castro JM, GĂłmez-Robles A, Margvelashvili A, Prado L, Lordkipanidze D, Vekua A (2008) Dental remains from Dmanisi (Republic of Georgia): morphological analysis and comparative study. J Hum Evol 55(2):249–273

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayr E (1950) Taxonomic categories in fossil hominids. Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol 15:109–118

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Potts R, Behrensmeyer AK, Deino A, Ditchfield P, Clark J (2004) Small Mid-Pleistocene hominin associated with East African Acheulean technology. Science 305:75–78

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Qian F, Zhou GX (1991) Quaternary geology and paleoanthropology of Yuanmou, Yunnan, China. Science Press, Beijing

    Google Scholar 

  • Rightmire GP (1984) Comparisons of Homo erectus from Africa and Southeast Asia. Cour Forsch-Inst Senckenberg 69:83–98

    Google Scholar 

  • Rightmire GP (1986) Species recognition and Homo erectus. J Hum Evol 15:823–826

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rightmire GP (1990) The evolution of Homo erectus: comparative anatomical studies of an extinct human species. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Rightmire GP (1998a) Evidence from facial morphology for similarity of Asian and African representatives of Homo erectus. Am J Phys Anthropol 106(1):61–85

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rightmire GP (1998b) Human evolution in the Middle Pleistocene: the role of Homo heidelbergensis. Evol Anthropol 6(6):218–227

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rightmire GP (2004) Brain size and encephalization in early to Mid-Pleistocene Homo. Am J phys Anthrop 124:109–123

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rightmire GP (2008) Homo in the Middle Pleistocene: hypodigms, variation, and species recognition. Evol Anthropol 17(1):8–21

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rightmire GP (2013) Homo erectus and Middle Pleistocene hominins: brain size, skull form, and species recognition. J Hum Evol 65(3):223–252

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rightmire GP, Lordkipanidze D (2009) Comparisons of early Pleistocene skulls from East Africa and the Georgian Caucasus: evidence bearing on the origin and systematics of genus Homo. In: Grine FE, Fleagle JG, Leakey RE (eds) The first humans–origin and early evolution of the genus Homo. Springer, New York, pp 39–48

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Rightmire GP, Lordkipanidze D, Vekua A (2006) Anatomical descriptions, comparative studies and evolutionary significance of the hominin skulls from Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia. J Hum Evol 50(2):115–141

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson JT (1961) The australopithecines and their bearing on the origin of Man and of stone tool making. S Afr J Sci 57:3–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Rohlf FJ, Slice D (1990) Extensions of the Procrustes method for the optimal superimposition of landmarks. Syst Zool 39:40–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Santa Luca A (1980) The Ngandong fossil hominids: a comparative study of a far eastern Homo erectus group. Department of Anthropology, Yale University, New Haven

    Google Scholar 

  • Sartono S (1982) Characteristics and chronology of early men in Java. In: L'Homo erectus et la place de l'homme de Tautavel Parmi les hominidĂ©s fossiles: Congrès International de PalĂ©ontologie Humaine, 1er Congrès, Nice, France, PrĂ©tirage du Colloque, pp 492–533

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz JH, Tattersall I (2003) The human fossil record. Volume two: Craniodental morphology of the genus Homo (Africa and Asia). Wiley, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz JH, Tattersall I (2005) The human fossil record. vol 4: Craniodental morphology of Early Hominids (Genera Australopithecus, Paranthropus, Orrorin) and overview. Wiley-Liss, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Shen G, Ku T, Cheng H, Edwards R, Yuan Z, Wang Q (2001) High-precision U-series dating of Locality 1 at Zhoukoudian, China. J Hum Evol 41:679–688

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shen G, Gao X, Gao B, Granger DE (2009) Age of Zhoukoudian Homo erectus determined with 26Al/10Be burial dating. Nature 458(7235):198–200

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simonetta A (1957) Catalogo e sinonimia annotata degli ominidi fossili ed attuali, 1758–1955. Atti della SocietĂ  toscana di scienze naturali 64:53–112

    Google Scholar 

  • Simpson SW, Quade J, Levin NE, Butler R, Dupont-Nivet G, Everett M, Semaw S (2008) A female Homo erectus pelvis from Gona, Ethiopia. Science 322(5904):1089–1092

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skinner MM, Gordon AD, Collard NJ (2006) Mandibular size and shape variation in the hominins at Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia. J Hum Evol 51:36–49

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spoor F, Leakey MG, Gathogo PN, Brown FH, AntĂłn SC, McDougall I, Kiarie C, Manthi FK, Leakey LN (2007) Implications of new early Homo fossils from Ileret, east of Lake Turkana, Kenya. Nature 448:688–691

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spoor F, Leakey MG, AntĂłn SC, Leakey LN (2008) The taxonomic status of KNM-ER 42700: a reply to Baab (2008a). J Hum Evol 55(4):747–750

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stringer CB (1984) The definition of Homo erectus and the existence of the species in Africa and Europe. Cour Forsch-Inst Senckenberg 69:131–143

    Google Scholar 

  • Stringer C (2012) The status of Homo heidelbergensis (Schoetensack 1908). Evol Anthropol Issues News Rev 21(3):101–107

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swisher CCI, Curtis GH, Jacob T, Getty AG, Suprijo A, Widiasmoro (1994) The age of the earliest hominids in Java, Indonesia. Science 263:1118–1121

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tamrat E, Thouveny N, Taieb M, Opdyke ND (1995) Revised magnetostratigraphy of the Plio-Pleistocene sedimentary sequence of the Olduvai Formation (Tanzania). Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 1114:273–283

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tattersall I (1986) Species recognition in human paleontology. J Hum Evol 15(3):165–175

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tattersall I (1992) Species concepts and species identification in human evolution. J Hum Evol 22(4):341–349

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terhune CE, Kimbel WH, Lockwood CA (2007) Variation and diversity in Homo erectus: a 3D geometric morphometric analysis of the temporal bone. J Hum Evol 53:41–60

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thorne AG, Wolpoff MH (1981) Regional continuity in Australasian Pleistocene hominid evolution. Am J Phys Anthropol 55:337–349

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turner A, Chamberlain A (1989) Speciation, morphological change and the status of African Homo erectus. J Hum Evol 18:115–130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vekua A, Lordkipanidze D, Rightmire GP, Agusti J, Ferring R, Maisuradze G, Mouskhelishvili A, Nioradze M, Ponce de LeĂłn M, Tappen M, Tvalchrelidze M, Zollikofer C (2002) A new skull of early Homo from Dmanisi, Georgia. Science 297(5578):85–89

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vialet A, Guipert G, Jianing H, Xiaobo F, Zune L, Youping W, Tianyuan L, de Lumley M-A, de Lumley H (2010) Homo erectus from the Yunxian and Nankin Chinese sites: anthropological insights using 3D virtual imaging techniques. CR Palevol 9(6):331–339

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vialet A, Guipert G, Cihat Alçiçek M (2012) Homo erectus found still further west: reconstruction of the KocabaĹź cranium (Denizli, Turkey). CR Palevol 11(2–3):89–95

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Villmoare B (2005) Metric and non-metric randomization methods, geographic variation, and the single-species hypothesis for Asian and African Homo erectus. J Hum Evol 49(6):680–701

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • von Koenigswald GHR, Weidenreich F (1939) The relationship between Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus. Nature 144:926–929

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walker A, Leakey RE (1978) The hominids of East Turkana. Sci Am 239(2):54

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang Y, Wu J, Xu H (2002) 230Th ages dated by thermal ionization and mass spectrometry (TIMS) technique. In: Wu R, Li X, Wu X, Mu X (eds) Homo erectus from Nanjing. Jiangsu Science and Technology Publishing House, Nanjing, p 309

    Google Scholar 

  • Weidenreich F (1940) Some problems dealing with ancient man. Am Anthropol 42(3):375–383

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weidenreich F (1943) The skull of Sinanthropus pekinensis: a comparative study on a primitive hominid skull. Paleont Sinica Ser D 10:1–298

    Google Scholar 

  • Weidenreich F (1951) Morphology of Solo man. Anthropol Pap Am Mus Nat Hist 43:222–288

    Google Scholar 

  • White T (1995) African omnivores: global climatic change and Plio-Pleistocene hominids and suids. In: Vrba ES, Denton GH, Partridge TC, Burckle LH (eds) Paleoclimate and evolution, with emphasis on human origins. Yale University Press, New Haven, pp 369–384

    Google Scholar 

  • Widianto H, Grimaud-Herve D (2000) Un nouveau crâne humain fossile dans le dĂ´me de Sangiran (Java, IndonĂ©sie). CR Acad Sci Ser IIa Sci Terre Planets 330(12):883–888

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolpoff MH (1984) Evolution in Homo erectus: the question of stasis. Paleobiology 10:389–406

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolpoff MH, Xinzhi W, Thorne AG (1984) Modern Homo sapiens origins: a general theory of hominid evolution involving the fossil evidence from east Asia. In: Smith FH, Spencer F (eds) The origins of modern humans. Liss, New York, pp 411–483

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolpoff MH, Thorne AG, JelĂ­nek J, Zhang Y (1994) The case for sinking Homo erectus. 100 years of Pithecanthropus is enough! Cour Forsch-Inst Senckenberg 171:341–361

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood BA (1984) The origin of Homo erectus. Cour Forsch-Inst Senckenberg 69:99–111

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood BA (1991) Koobi Fora research project: hominid cranial remains, vol 4. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood B (1992) Early hominid species and speciation. J Hum Evol 22:351–365

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wood BA (1994) Taxonomy and evolutionary relationships of Homo erectus. Cour Forsch-Inst Senckenberg 171:159–165

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu X, Poirier FE (1995) Human evolution in China: a metric description of the fossils and a review of the sites. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu R, Wu X, Zhang S (1989) Early humankind in China. Science Press, Beijing

    Google Scholar 

  • Yan GL (1993) Preliminary study on the magnetic stratigraphy of Yunxian Man Site, Hubei Province. Geosci Bull Chi Geol Univ 18:221–226, In Chinese

    Google Scholar 

  • Zaim Y, Ciochon RL, Polanski JM, Grine FE, Bettis EA III, Rizal Y, Franciscus RG, Larick RR, Heizler M, Aswan EKL, Marsh HE (2011) New 1.5 million-year-old Homo erectus maxilla from Sangiran (Central Java, Indonesia). J Hum Evol 61(4):363–376

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang Y (1998) Fossil human crania from Yunxian, China: morphological comparison with Homo erectus crania from Zhoukoudian. Hum Evol 13:45–48

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao SS, Pei JX, Guo SL, Liu SS, Qian F, Chou SH, Li XG (1985) Study of chronology of Peking Man site. In: Wu RK, Ren ME, Zhu XM et al (eds) Multi-disciplinary study of the Peking Man site at Zhoukoudian. Science Press, Beijing, pp 239–240

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao J, Hu K, Collerson KD, Xu H (2001) Thermal ionization mass spectrometry U-series dating of a hominid site near Nanjing, China. Geology 29:27–30

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu R, An Z, Potts R, Hoffman KA (2003) Magnetostratigraphic dating of early humans in China. Earth Sci Rev 61(3–4):341–359

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgement

I gratefully acknowledge the following individuals and institutions for permission to study their collections: Ian Tattersall, Ken Mowbray, and Gisselle Garcia, American Museum of Natural History; Marta Lahr and Maggie Bellati, University of Cambridge; Teuku Jacob and Etty Indriati, Gadja Mada University; Dominique Grimaud-Hervé, Institut de Paleontologie Humaine; Philippe Mennecier, Musée de L’Homme; Mamitu Yilma, National Museums of Ethiopia; Emma Mbua and Idle Omar Farah, National Museums of Kenya; Rob Kruszynski and Louise Humphrey, Natural History Museum; Michele Morgan, Peabody Museum, Harvard University; Alan Morris, University of Cape Town. Grant support was provided by NSF (BCS 04-24262, DGE 03-33415, and DBI 96-02234), and the Leakey and Sigma Xi Foundations; this is NYCEP Morphometrics contribution 90.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Anatomy, Midwestern University, 19555 N. 59th Avenue, Glendale, AZ, 85308, USA

    Karen L. Baab

Authors
  1. Karen L. Baab
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Karen L. Baab .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Institut für Anthropologie, Johannes-Gutenberg Universität, Mainz, Germany

    Winfried Henke

  2. Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, New York, USA

    Ian Tattersall

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this entry

Cite this entry

Baab, K.L. (2015). Defining Homo erectus . In: Henke, W., Tattersall, I. (eds) Handbook of Paleoanthropology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-39979-4_73

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation