Abstract
We know that a heightened debate has taken place in the past two decades on the state, its relevance and possible obsolescence, but the state is still alive. In reality states have very often been able to adjust to changes as one of the dominant characteristics of territoriality is its flexibility.
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Notes
- 1.
See Casimir (1992, pp. 16–20).
- 2.
See von Bertalanffy (1950, pp. 134–165).
- 3.
See Gauchet (1977, p. 5).
- 4.
Chevallier (1978, p. 5).
- 5.
Idem, p. 4. See also Shils (1975).
- 6.
By disintegration, it is meant here mainly the situation where a state loses its internal cohesion which fact might ultimately cause it to fragment into parts. Thus, a state may lose it internal cohesion and not fragment into parts. However, it is such loss of cohesion that renders a state very weak and sometimes a source of danger for other states. This issue is widely developed by Migdal (2001, pp. 135–169).
- 7.
See for a general synthesis Doehring (1984, pp. 70–74).
- 8.
de Visscher (1967, p. 36).
- 9.
See, for instance, Lefort (1972).
- 10.
See Carneiro (1978, pp. 203–223).
- 11.
- 12.
Claessen et al. (1985, p. 247).
- 13.
- 14.
See in this respect Dole (1966).
- 15.
van Creveld (1999, p. 4).
- 16.
Andriolo (1978, p. 193).
- 17.
Yoffee (2005, p. 32).
- 18.
See Parsons (1961, pp. 30–79).
- 19.
Hobbes (1994, p. 76).
- 20.
Idem, p. 109.
- 21.
Forsyth (1994, p. 39).
- 22.
Hobbes (1994, p. 109).
- 23.
See Hampton (1986, p. 3).
- 24.
Locke (1988, p. 164).
- 25.
Idem, pp. 87–96.
- 26.
Hobbes (1994, pp. 110–111).
- 27.
See Waldrom (1994, pp. 51–72).
- 28.
Idem, p. 55.
- 29.
Hume (1963, pp. 474–475).
- 30.
Hume “Of the Origin of Government” in “Essays”, idem (1963), p. 67.
- 31.
See Gauthier (1979, p. 3).
- 32.
Spencer (1967, p. 8).
- 33.
Idem, p. 78.
- 34.
Idem, p. 106.
- 35.
Haas (1962, p. 63).
- 36.
Mayr (1982, p. 385).
- 37.
Morgan (1963, p. 6).
- 38.
Engels “ The Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State” (1884), Preface to the fourth edition (1891).
- 39.
Engels (1972, p. 31).
- 40.
Mandel “Marxist Theory of the State”, Marxist Internet Archives (1969), www.angelfire.com/pr/red/mandel/.
- 41.
Wittfogel (1957).
- 42.
Spencer (1896).
- 43.
Carneiro (1977).
- 44.
According to K. Wittfogel, the state came into being “when an experimenting community of farmers or protofarmers finds large sources of moisture in a dry but potentially fertile area. . . . a number of farmers eager to conquer [agriculturally, not militarily] arid lowlands and plains are forced to invoke the organizational devices which – on the basis of premachine technology – offer the one chance of success: they must work in cooperation with their fellows and subordinate themselves to a directing authority.”, Wittfogel (1957, p. 18).
- 45.
Germet (1968, p. 92). Robert M. Adams was able to show with regard Mesopotamia that: “there is nothing to suggest that the rise of dynastic authority in southern Mesopotamia was linked to the administrative requirements of a major canal system.”, Adams (1960, p. 281). See also Carneiro (1977, p. 738) and Gunawardana (1985, p. 220).
- 46.
See Cowgill (1975, p. 517).
- 47.
See Wright and Johnson (1975, p. 276).
- 48.
Carneiro (1977, p. 734).
- 49.
Cohen (1985, p. 282).
- 50.
Idem, p. 287.
- 51.
Trigger (1985, p. 52).
- 52.
Schacht (1988, p. 442).
- 53.
Flannery (1972, p. 406).
- 54.
Wright “Toward an Explanation of the Origin of the State”, prepared for Sch. Am. Res. Symp. “Explanation of Prehistoric Organizational Change”, 1970.
- 55.
Service (1975, pp. 266–289).
- 56.
Flannery (1972, p. 412).
- 57.
Claessen (1978, pp. 533–596).
- 58.
Claessen (1985, p. 255).
- 59.
Peregrine et al. (2007, pp. 75–86).
- 60.
Idem, p. 78.
- 61.
Idem, p. 79.
- 62.
See Wright (1977, p. 386 cont).
- 63.
Most of the theories on the origin of the state do agree that the latter is the result of the division of the society, but they disagree on the nature of that division and the interpretation of the ways that have been used by the states to address it. See, for a general analysis of these theories, Haas (1962, pp. 19–85).
- 64.
See Smith (1988).
- 65.
Fried (2004, p. 300).
- 66.
“The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History” (1377). See on this Becker and Smelo (1931, p. 67).
- 67.
Khaldun (2007, p. 34 and 35).
- 68.
Idem, p. 37.
- 69.
Idem, p. 39.
- 70.
Idem, p. 41.
- 71.
Idem, p. 41.
- 72.
Idem, p. 57.
- 73.
Lowie “The Origin of the State”, op.cit, (1927, p. 21).
- 74.
Becker and Smelo (1931, p. 79).
- 75.
Krader (1968, p. 45).
- 76.
Fried (2004, p. 300).
- 77.
See McGuire (1983).
- 78.
Simon (1965, p. 70).
- 79.
Tainter (1988, pp. 23–24).
- 80.
See Curie (1994, pp. 251–268).
- 81.
- 82.
Shiozawa (2007, p. 310).
- 83.
Idem, p. 314.
- 84.
See Hindless and Hirst (1975, p. 194).
- 85.
Idem.
- 86.
Idem.
- 87.
Yoffee (2005).
- 88.
See on the traditional unilinear evolutionary approach of human societies, Ginsberg (1957).
- 89.
Idem, p. 214.
- 90.
See Bargatzky (1987, p. 28).
- 91.
Idem, pp. 30–31.
- 92.
See on the evolution of Ur dynasty Yoffee (2005, pp. 144–147).
- 93.
Crone (1989, p. 45).
- 94.
See Van den Berghe (1978, pp. 401–411).
- 95.
Smith (1998, pp. 42–46).
- 96.
Barth (1969, p. 15).
- 97.
Weber (1978, p. 389).
- 98.
Brass (1985), p. 33.
- 99.
See Bell (1975).
- 100.
Yoffee (2005, pp. 47–48).
- 101.
See Cohen (1981, pp. 87–88).
- 102.
Chevallier (1978, p. 24).
- 103.
Schwartz (2006, p. 3).
- 104.
Engels (1972, p. 31).
- 105.
Idem, p. 229.
- 106.
In North et al. remarkable work (2009), Douglass C. North, John Joseph Wallis and Barry R. Weingast have dealt with the issue of how states have over ages managed to survive, but they have neglected in their study the analysis of the crucial factor of the ethnic division of the society.
- 107.
Service (1975, p. 10).
- 108.
Idem, p. 307.
- 109.
Idem, p. xiii.
- 110.
Trigger (1985, pp. 52–53).
- 111.
Idem, p. 55.
- 112.
Rappaport (1971, p. 29).
- 113.
Kolata (2006).
- 114.
Trigger (1985, p. 52).
- 115.
Haas (1982, p. 175).
- 116.
Idem, pp. 23–24.
- 117.
See Flannery (1972, p. 409 cont).
- 118.
Chevallier (1978, p. 24).
- 119.
Spruyt (2002, p. 131).
- 120.
Loschak (1978, p. 163).
- 121.
See Price (1978, pp. 161–186).
- 122.
Carneiro (1978, pp. 205–223).
- 123.
Wilkinson “Kinematics of World Systems”, paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Society for the Comparative Study of Civilization, Boone, North Carolina, June 1984, 9.
- 124.
Empire has been defined as “territorially expansive and incorporative kind of state, involving relationships in which one state exercise control over sociopolitical entities (e.g. states, chiefdoms, on-stratified societies), and of imperialism as the process of creating and maintaining empires. The diverse polities and communities that constitute an empire typically retain some degree of autonomy-in self-and centrally-defined cultural identity, and in some dimensions of political and economic decision making”, Spinoli (1994, p. 160).
- 125.
See Taagepera (1978, pp. 108–127).
- 126.
“The acquisition of regularized revenues, writes Carla M. Spinoli, through tribute or taxes is both a major goal and a significant outcome of imperial expansion and consolidation”, Spinoli (1994, p. 165).
- 127.
See Spinoli (1994, pp. 162–169).
- 128.
Spengler (1918–1922).
- 129.
Toynbee (1933–1954).
- 130.
Cowgill (1988, p. 253).
- 131.
Yoffee (2005, p. 38).
- 132.
See the analysis of the collapse of ancient Mesopotamian States by Yoffee (2005, pp. 131–160).
- 133.
Trigger (2003, p. 93).
- 134.
See Tainter (1988, p. 8).
- 135.
Motyl (2001, p. 22).
- 136.
Idem, p. 16.
- 137.
Idem, p. 21.
- 138.
Eisenstadt (1969).
- 139.
Barkey (2008, p. 3).
- 140.
Idem, p. 9 and 10.
- 141.
Tainter (1988).
- 142.
Idem, p. 121.
- 143.
Anderson (1986, p. 1).
- 144.
Strayer (1965, pp. 29–30).
- 145.
See Russel (1968, p. 204).
- 146.
Gottmann “The Significance of Territory”, op.cit, 1973, p. 36.
- 147.
Mann (1986, p. 379).
- 148.
Spruyt (1994, pp. 88–89).
- 149.
See Samuel E. Finner “State-and Nation-Building in Europe: The Role of the Military” in C. Tilly (ed.) “The Formation of National States in Western Europe”, 1975, pp. 84–163.
- 150.
Davies (1996, p. 519).
- 151.
- 152.
See Ardant (1975, pp. 164–243).
- 153.
Very often urban centers and cities used to be at the origin of the territorialization process as happened with early and traditional states. For a fresh look on the role of urban centers in the emergence of modern states, see Sassen (2008, pp. 41–72).
- 154.
See Anderson (1996a, p. 21).
- 155.
Idem.
- 156.
See Black (1997).
- 157.
See Febvre (1973).
- 158.
Nys (1904, pp. 401–402).
- 159.
Opello and Rosow (1999, p. 50).
- 160.
See Nys (1901, p. 604).
- 161.
- 162.
Tilly (1975, p. 27).
- 163.
See Hakli (1994, p. 48 et seq).
- 164.
See Geary (2003).
- 165.
Strayer (1970, p. 57).
- 166.
Tilly (1975, p. 18).
- 167.
See Touraine (1992, p. 21 et seq).
- 168.
Gellner (1983, p. 40).
- 169.
On the pre-existence of these states which generally were “warfare states” before becoming “nations states”, Giddens (1985, p. 112 cont).
- 170.
I. Wallerstein states in this regard “Why should the establishment of any sovereign state within the interstate system create a corresponding ‘nation’, a ‘people’? States in this system have problems of cohesion. Once recognized as sovereign, the states frequently find themselves subsequently threatened by both internal disintegration and external aggression. To the extent that ‘national’ sentiment develops, these threats are lessened The governments in power have an interest in promoting this sentiment, as do all sorts of sub-groups within the state. Any group who sees advantage in using the state’s legal powers to advance its interest against groups outside the state or in any sub-region of the state has an interest in promoting nationalist sentiments as a legitimation of its claims. States furthermore have an interest in administrative uniformity which increases the efficacity of their policies. Nationalism is the expression, the promoter, and the consequence of such state-level uniformities”, Wallerstein (1991, pp. 81–82).
- 171.
See Margaret Canovan (2004, p. 20).
- 172.
Theisse (2001, p. 11).
- 173.
See Gellner (1983, pp. 55–56).
- 174.
See Hobsbawn (1990, p. 42 cont).
- 175.
Cobban (1947, p. 6).
- 176.
Ibid, p. 44. See also Tilly (1975, p. 43).
- 177.
Bauman (1990, p. 157).
- 178.
- 179.
See Smith (1998).
- 180.
Tilly (1992, p. 115).
- 181.
- 182.
- 183.
We know that the sociologist, E. Durkheim, and the French solidarity school of thought have played at the end of the nineteenth century a very important role in promoting the role of the state in social solidarity in order to reduce the then increasing Marxist influence and neutralize any popular revolutionary movements.
- 184.
Bihr (2000, p. 39).
- 185.
Colas (2007, p. 21).
- 186.
Anderson (1983, p. 15).
- 187.
Conversi (1995, p. 421).
- 188.
See Akzin (1964, pp. 67–68).
- 189.
See El Ouali (1984, p. 107).
- 190.
Advisory Opinion on Western Sahara, Collection, 1975, para 162.
- 191.
- 192.
Statement by Judge Nagendra Singh, ICJ Reports, 1975, 80.
- 193.
J. Chapez (1976, p. 46).
- 194.
Western Sahara Case, ICJ Reports, 1975, para 93.
- 195.
Regarding the principle of intertemporality, the Institute of International Law clarified that without an indication to the contrary, the temporal scope of application of public international law norm is determined in accordance with the general principle of law, according to which any fact, act and situation must be looked at in light of the rules of law which are in force at the time, Resolution of 11 August 1975, A.I.L.I., 1975, vol. 56, 536–541. On this principle, see too Elias (1980, p. 285 et seq).
- 196.
- 197.
- 198.
- 199.
Cf. Man (1984, p. 331).
- 200.
See, among others, Wesson (1967, pp. 27–28 and 153–154).
- 201.
See the explanations given by one of Morocco’s legal advisers, Dupuy (1990, pp. 117–127).
- 202.
Cf. Ferguson and Mansbach (1996, pp. 401–402).
- 203.
Yale H. Ferguson and Richard W. Mansbach wrote that “Religion is an important source of legitimacy. Every empire has its principal god or pantheon, and every significant city polity its sponsoring deity or saint. One variant is charisma or revelation, illustrated by the Islamic community, especially during Muhammed’s lifetime, and also by the Christian Pope. Mesopotamian kings and Mesoamerican rulers, too, played the role of special intermediary between their peoples and the gods. Patron deities, saints – or in the instance of Venice, the Apostle Saint Mark – were sacred conduits for city dwellers who had secular local rulers. Another variant of religion is the idea of divine right as a source of dynastic legitimacy. Unlike revelation, divine right does not require direct communication with gods but entails their sanction. The Chinese equivalent of the divine right claimed by the European kings was the Mandate of Heaven.”, Ferguson and Mansbach (1996, p. 390).
- 204.
Herb (1999, p. 10).
- 205.
Western Sahara case, ICJ Reports, 1975, para 95.
- 206.
Idem.
- 207.
Idem.
- 208.
See P. Reuter preface to R. Lazrak “Le contentieux territorial entre le Maroc et l’Espagne”, op.cit., 1974, p. 7.
- 209.
In this matter, the PCIJ declared that It is impossible to look at the decisions made in matters concerning territorial sovereignty without observing that, in many cases, the tribunal did not demand numerous illustrations of the exercise of sovereign rights, as long as the other state involved has put forward a stronger claim. This is particularly true of the demands for sovereignty over the territories situated in poorly populated territories, or which are not occupied by permanent residents, Eastern Greenland case, PCIJ, Series A/B, No 53, 46.
- 210.
The Arbitral Tribunal declared that “Since the Rann until recently has been deemed incapable of permanent occupation, the requirement of possession cannot play the same important role in determining sovereign rights therein as it would have done otherwise. Therefore, special significance must be accorded to the display of other states activities…”, Case concerning the Indo-Pakistan Western Boundary (Runn of Kutch), between India and Pakistan,1997, R.S.A., vol. XVII, 563.
- 211.
In this matter where the arbitration award was pronounced, it is true, a long time after the Court’s judgment on the Sahara question, the arbitral tribunal confirmed the previous jurisprudence by admitting that “this exercise (of state authority) may be very limited when it is a question of territories which are sparsely populated or have no permanent habitants”, I.L.R., 1993, vol. 91, 624.
- 212.
Kohen (1997, p. 229).
- 213.
Merely stating that “in the present instance, Western Sahara, if somewhat sparsely populated, was a territory across which socially and politically organized tribes were in constant movement and where armed incidents between these tribes were frequent” (92), while as we know, it had also recognized that there were legal connections between a large number of the tribes of the Sahara and Morocco.
- 214.
Cf. Kohen (1997, p. 226).
- 215.
M. Bennouna observed that “hoping to come to a conclusion on the relationships of allegiance and sovereignty, the Court questions the very existence of Morocco, as its power was exercised in similar ways in regions of Marrakech or Fez”, Bennouna (1976, pp. 94–95).
- 216.
For a general presentation of this view and its critique, see e.g. Cohen (2006, pp. 1–17).
- 217.
See Rosecrance (1996, p. 4).
- 218.
- 219.
Albert and Brock (1996, pp. 69–106).
- 220.
Strange (1996).
- 221.
Ohmae (1996).
- 222.
Apparadurai (1996, p. 3 et seq., 81, 165).
- 223.
See Wallerstein (2004).
- 224.
See P.Q. Hirst and G.F. Thompson (1999) Globalization in Question: The International Economy and the Possibility of Governance, Cambridge, Polity Press, 2nd ed., ch.2.
- 225.
Idem. See also Sassen (1996, p. 40).
- 226.
R. Gilpin (2001, p. 10).
- 227.
Hirst and Thompson (2002, p. 253).
- 228.
Idem.
- 229.
- 230.
Keating (2001, p. 20).
- 231.
See Sassen (2008, p. 419).
- 232.
Van Staden and Vollaard (2002, p. 162).
- 233.
See Weiss (2003, p. 316).
- 234.
Smith (2007, p. 25).
- 235.
Taylor (1994, p. 157).
- 236.
In fact, the loss of state’s capacity to influence economy is a reality more in Western countries than in other countries such as China which, on the contrary, has witnessed the rise of the “development state”, a kind of a strong state devoted to promote economic growth and prosperity. Martin Jacques does recall in this respect that “The emergent Chinese model bears witness to a new kind of capitalism where the state is hyperactive and omnipresent in a range of different ways and forms: in providing assistance to private firms, in a galaxy of state-owned enterprises, in managing the process by which the renminbi slowly evolves towards fully considerable status and, above all, in being the architect of an economic strategy which has driven China’s economic transformation” In: Taylor (2009, p. 185).
- 237.
See Michalet (2003, p. 37).
- 238.
L. Martell has written in this respect that “Theses of the decline of the nation-state have to take into account the considerable powers that nation-states have. This varies between nation-states…But powers that many nation-states have, to varying degrees, remain over: the ultimate resort to force, military action and the capacity to use it internally or externally; spending on welfare and social services, the levels these are set at, and the type of system and or services preferred; power over amounts of investment in education and health and choice of policies in these areas; powers to raise or lower rates of taxation; power over law and order and justice, what policies to implement in these areas, and how much and in what ways to invest in them; policies over culture and arts; not to mention a number of levels of macro- and micro- economic policy.” In: Martell (2010, p. 209).
- 239.
Jovanovic and Hendrard (2008, p. 1).
- 240.
Cf. Bihr (2000, p. 61 et seq).
- 241.
See Gilpin (2001, p. 293).
- 242.
See Clarck (1997, p. 31).
- 243.
- 244.
Bihr (2000, p. 60).
- 245.
See Karatnycky (2005).
- 246.
Huntington (1991).
- 247.
Lipset and Lakin (2004).
- 248.
Giddens (1999).
- 249.
See Levitsky and Way (2010).
- 250.
See, e.g. Dollar and Kraay (2002, pp. 120–133).
- 251.
- 252.
Murphy (2001, p. 350).
- 253.
Fitoussi (2004, p. 89).
- 254.
“The formal procedures”, notes Muller K (2007) of party politics, voting, representation, division of power, legislation, etc. stay in place. In practice, democratic participation and parliamentarian decision-making become severely restricted, elections turn into a matter of marketing, opinion polls and video-politics, Muller (2007, p. 488). See also Habermas (1975, pp. 36–37).
- 255.
See Corneliau (2000, p. 166).
- 256.
See Crouch (2004).
- 257.
See Pierson (1997, p. 143).
- 258.
See Esping-Andersen (1998).
- 259.
See Mitchell D (2000).
- 260.
See Kwiek M (2007, p. 149).
- 261.
Esping-Andersen (1996, p. 9).
- 262.
Forward of Esping-Andersen (1996, p. vii).
- 263.
Habermas (2001, p. 52).
- 264.
Kwiek (2007, p. 151).
- 265.
See Beck (1999).
- 266.
Beck (2000, p. 1).
- 267.
Hutton (2000, p. 337).
- 268.
Grader (1997, p. 360 et seq).
- 269.
Dubet and Marticelli (1998, p. 49).
- 270.
See Bouffartigue (2004).
- 271.
Agnew (2005, p. 360 et seq).
- 272.
Lind (1996, pp. 215–216).
- 273.
Cf. Tierney (2005, pp. 161–183).
- 274.
See for an opposite view Elkins (1995, p. 17).
- 275.
See Introduction of Burgess and Vollaard (2006, p. 7).
- 276.
Immerfall (1998, p. 7).
- 277.
See Kahler (2006, p. 1).
- 278.
See Rogers J. Hollingsworth (1998) “Territoriality in Modern Societies: The Spatial and Institutional Nestedness of National Economies” in S. Immerfall (ed.) “Territoriality in the Globalizing Society. One Place or None?”, op.cit.,17–18.
- 279.
Doornbos (2006, p. 47).
- 280.
See R. Deschamps “Le fédéralisme belge a-t-il de l’avenir?”, www.cifop.be/doc/srepb/srepb090306.pd.
- 281.
Tuathail (1999, p. 143).
- 282.
See Bacheli et al. (2004, p. 1 cont).
- 283.
- 284.
See Newman (2000, p. 18).
- 285.
Dittgen (2001, p. 49).
- 286.
- 287.
Smith (1995, p. 2).
- 288.
Genov (1997, p. 413).
- 289.
See Harvey (1990, p. 341).
- 290.
- 291.
See Boivret (1995, pp. 11, 13, 19, 27, 30).
- 292.
- 293.
For an analysis of the external aspects of postmodernity, see Sorensen (2001).
- 294.
See Chevalier (2004, p. 73).
- 295.
- 296.
Territorial autonomy can be defined as the enjoyment, by a human group, of legislative, executive and possibly judiciary powers granted by the state as part of the exercising of territorial democracy. This is because “territorial democracy” is central to the notion of territorial autonomy as it allows effective enjoyment of human rights by the members of ethnic communities. For other different definitions of territorial autonomy, see Hannum and Lillich (1980, p. 859); Lapidoth (2003, p. 267); Wolff and Weller (2005, p. 13).
- 297.
Such promotion was imputed to the revival of old notion of industrial district as an instrument to attract foreign investments. See Michalet (2002, p. 189 et seq).
- 298.
See Scott (1998, p. 7).
- 299.
See Auberni (2003, p. 305).
- 300.
See Watts (2008, p. 1).
- 301.
Colomer (2007, p. xi).
- 302.
Idem, p. 7.
- 303.
“Territorial Autonomy: Permanent Solution or Step toward Secession ?”, www.indonesiamission-ny.org/issuebaru/Mission/empwr/paper_hurstHannum_1.pdf.
- 304.
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Ouali, A.E. (2012). The State’s Ability to Ensure Its Own Survival. In: Territorial Integrity in a Globalizing World. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22869-8_2
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