Fr. Ratzel and the Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade

Stogiannos, Alexandros

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-98035-5_7

Alexandros Stogiannos²

Part of the book series: Historical Geography and Geosciences ((HIGEGE))

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Abstract

The Eastern Question, a term which was established in the vocabulary of national diplomacy since the period of the Verona conference, is met in bibliography with two notions: on the one hand, through the wide historico-philosophical prism, as a struggle between eastern brutality and western culture, which was transformed into a struggle between Christianity and Islamism, and on the other hand, in a narrower sense, as a conflict between western countries and the Ottoman Empire, with the expectation of the latter’s collapse and with main object for each of the opposing European powers the control of the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East, against rivals’ interests.

This chapter is an updated version of the article „STOGIANNOS, Alekos. Friedrich Ratzel And The Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade. Civitas Gentium, [S.l.], v. 2, n. 1, pp. 79–124, jan. 2013. ISSN 1792-9474”.

German merchants’ saw, (Dem Handel folgt die Flagge), with which they expressed at the end of 19th century their strategy, aiming at the colonial activation of the under Bismarck German government. It refers to the view, according to which commercial and economic relations are initially established with areas, which later on are militarily occupied. The opposite view, that trade follows flag (Der Handel folgt der Flagge), supports the reverse process. This phrase is also found in the English colonial dialect (the flag follows the trade). In Ratzel’s works appearing in the bibliography, this phrase is spotted at least three times: Ratzel¹, p. 363; Ratzel⁴, p. 44; Ratzel⁸, p. 101.

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Notes

1.
Λάσκαρις, Μ.Θ. (1978): Το ανατολικόν ζήτημα, p. 11.
2.
Driault, Ε. (1921): Το Ανατολικό ζήτημα [Introduction by I. Aktoglou, pp. 18–19].
3.
The other three are, according to the writer, the American, Chinese and African ones.
4.
Driault, Ε. (1921): Το Ανατολικό ζήτημα [G. Monod, Foreword, p. 65].
5.
Ibid., p. 84.
6.
Driault, Ε. (1921): Το Ανατολικό ζήτημα, p. 85.
7.
Λάσκαρις, Μ.Θ. (1978): Το ανατολικόν ζήτημα, p. 12.
8.
Clayton, G.D. (1971): Britain and the Eastern Question, p. 9.
9.
Ibid., p. 10.
10.
Marx, Engels: Η Γερμανική Ιδεολογία [Die deutsche Ideologie]. Introduction by P. Kondylis, pp. 71–72.
11.
Mackinder, Halford, Δημοκρατικά Ιδεώδη και Πραγματικότητα άλλες Τρείς Εισηγήσεις, Ο Γεωγραφικός Άξονας της Ιστορίας, pp. 476–483.
12.
Spykman, Nicholas, Η Γεωγραφία της Ειρήνης, p. 105 and following.
13.
Similarly Ratzel titles the below presented work “The Eastern Questions”.
14.
Walkenhorst, P. (2007): Nation–Volk–Rasse…, p. 189.
15.
P. Walkenhorst uses the term radikaler Nationalismus (radical nationalism). In the present essay was chosen its conventional translation as “extreme nationalism” or “ultra- nationalism”, without any effort to grade national intensities of that period of time. Certainly this distinction is crucial and necessary, since German nationalism experienced many changes until the tragic events of World War II.
16.
Walkenhorst, P. (2007): Nation—Volk—Rasse…, p. 12.
17.
Hauke, H.: Die Krise der deutschen Kolonialpolitik, p. 1.
18.
Treaty signed between Germany and England on the 1st July 1890, with which Germany quitted its claims on Witu, Somalia and Uganda for England, receiving as reparation a strip of land in SW Africa and Helgoland, which was since 1815 under British domination. This treaty was judged by the ultra-nationalists as extremely negative for German interests.
19.
In September 1886 the establishment of “General German League for the representation of German interests abroad” had preceded, a kind of secondary union, as a result of a conference which took place in Berlin with the participation of many nationalistic and colonial organizations. Walkenhorst, p. 67.
20.
In its declaration it defined as main aims the revitalization of patriotic conscience, the treatment and support of German interests abroad, the promotion of an effective dynamic in favour of German political interests. Pan-German programme was in fact created during the last decade of 19th century and included: territorial expansion of Germany, fleet reinforcement, promotion of Germandom (Deutschtum), fight against minorities in Germany. This last position was mainly against Polish and French in Elsaß—Lothringen.
21.
Morgenthau, H. [1994]: Τα μυστικά του Βοσπόρου, p. 40.
22.
Walkenhorst, Nation—Volk—Rasse…, p. 183.
23.
Ibid., p. 239.
24.
Ibid., p. 216.
25.
Walkenhorst, P. (2007): Nation—Volk—Rasse, p. 189.
26.
Ibid., σ. 192
27.
The first axis of the Eastern Question under German nationalist view is presented in Sects. 6.2 and 6.2.1 (see Maps 3–8 in Appendix).
28.
Walkenhorst, P. (2007): Nation—Volk—Rass, p. 210.
29.
Ibid., p. 220.
30.
Driault, E. (1921): Το Ανατολικό ζήτημα, p. 306.
31.
During the British-Russian approach were also arranged the two countries’ disputes in Asia. So, it was accorded that they would not be involved in Tibet, that Afghanistan would remain under British influence and Persia would be separated in three zones. The southern zone belonged to the British sphere of influence, the northern one (including Teheran) to the Russian sphere, while the south-western zone remained neutral. Morgenthau [Greek translation, p. 77, Footnote 26].
32.
http://www.wasistwas.de/technik/alle-artikel/artikel/link//74d7e0d2f1/article/die-konstantinopel-bagdad-bahn.html.
33.
www.jahrbuch2002.studien-vonzeitfragen.net/Weltmacht/Bagdadbahn/bagdadbahn.html.
34.
Driault, E. (1921): Το Ανατολικό ζήτημα, pp. 306–307
35.
www.bagdadbahn.de/
36.
www.vorkriegsgeschichte.de/content/view/15/31/.
37.
Driault, E. (1921): Το Ανατολικό ζήτημα, p. 307
38.
Ibid., pp. 312–313.
39.
Μüller, K.-H. (1917): Die wirtschaftliche edeutung der Bagdadbahn, p. 80
40.
According to the imperialistic view of that period of time, redskins’ culture was not … culture, neither had any historicalness.
41.
Frech, F. (1913): Die Bagdadbahn und ihre Kulturbedeutung, p. 29.
42.
The term Verkehr is translated as (vehicular) circulation/traffic, transports and communications, even as association. In the present essay it is used untranslated, since all its versions define an important parameter of Ratzel’s thought: the ability of space management.
43.
Ratzel, Fr.¹ (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 357.
44.
I.e. cultural development! Culture is a central notion of Ratzel’s geographical and cosmo-theoretical view.
45.
Ratzel, Fr.¹ (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 358.
46.
Ibid., p. 370.
47.
Ratzel, Fr.¹ (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 371.
48.
Ibid, p. 369.
49.
Ratzel, Fr.¹ (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 367.
50.
Ibid., p. 366.
51.
Ibid., p. 366.
52.
Ratzel, Fr.¹ (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 359.
53.
The other two pillars are the defensive and political one.
54.
Ratzel, Fr.¹ (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 358.
55.
Ratzel, Fr.¹ (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 365.
56.
On geographical spaces see Mazis¹, pp. 34–37.
57.
Ratzel, Fr.¹ (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 363
58.
At this point a methodological coincidence with Systemic Geopolitics (Defensive, Economic and Political pillars) is evident. See: Μάζης, Ι.¹ (2002): Γεωπολιτική. Θεωρία και πράξη, p. 140 and MAZIS ΙOANNIS⁴, «Writing Methodology of a Geopolitical Analysis. Structure, Concepts and Terms».
59.
Ratzel, Fr.¹ (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 363.
60.
Ratzel, Fr.¹ (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 363.
61.
Ibid., p. 350.
62.
Ibid., p. 350.
63.
Ratzel, Fr.¹ (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 365.
64.
Ibid., p. 333.
65.
Ibid., p. 333.
66.
Ratzel, Fr.¹ (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 351.
67.
Ibid., p. 363.
68.
Ibid., p. 336.
69.
Ratzel, Fr.¹ (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 335 & 345.
70.
Ibid., p. 234.
71.
Ibid., p. 238.
72.
Contrary to the widely held view, Ratzel’s distancing from any anti-Semitic attitude becomes evident, at a time, when antisemitic perceptions were prevalent in Europe, particularly in Germany. The same approach is found in other Ratzel’s works.
73.
Ratzel, Fr.¹ (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 333.
74.
Ibid., p. 369.
75.
Ratzel, Fr.¹ (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 333.
76.
Ibid., p. 358.
77.
Ferdinand de Lesseps (1805-1894): French diplomat and engineer. He undertook in 1854 the opening of the Suez Canal, which held from 1859 to 1869. Contrary, his involvement in the construction of Panamas Canal was unsuccessful and resulted in bankruptcy of the offeror company, and his sentence in five years’ imprisonment.
78.
Ratzel, Fr.¹ (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 498.
79.
Ibid., p. 465.
80.
Ibid., p. 466.
81.
Ratzel, Fr.² (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, pp. 355–356.
82.
The term Centro-European interests should be interpreted within the frame of the view about the need to create an economic space as counterbalance to the great empires of that era. The powers which, according to Ratzel, define Mitteleuropa’s fate are Germany, Austria-Hungary and France.
83.
Ratzel, Fr.² (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, p. 365.
84.
Ratzel, Fr.² (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, p. 356.
85.
Ratzel considers Eastern Mediterranean as “metacenter” of the Mediterranean, since France and Spain were not any more great sea powers and trade with India was held now on through Mediterranean.
86.
On the modern geopolitical influence axes see Μάζης², p. 17 and Μάζης⁵, p. 28.
87.
The Cretan question is at this period of time top problem of the Eastern question and pretext for a conflict on European territory between England–France–Russia and Germany. Since the former ones supported Cretans’ right to choose their sovereign, while Kaiser Wilhelm II reinforced the uncompromising Turkish position for election of a Turkish national for this post.
88.
Ratzel, Fr.² (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, p. 359.
89.
Ratzel, F.² (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, p. 357.
90.
Ibid., p. 357.
91.
Ratzel, F.² (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, p. 356: “…external trade with Turkey falls short comparing with that of England, however its is a little bit greater comparing with Austria, while French ships which traversed Suez in 1895 were 8 times fewer that the English ones, and the number of the under German flag ships was greater than the French ones. Even in the countries paying tribute to Turkey, Bulgaria and Egypt, France falls much short comparing with England, while French steamships are in Syrian ports more seldom that the Austrian ones.”
92.
Ratzel, F.⁹(1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, p.187.
93.
Ratzel, F.² (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, p. 366.
94.
Ibid., pp. 366–367.
95.
Ratzel, F.² (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, p. 367.
96.
Residents of Mediterranean countries situated in Eastern Italy.
97.
Ratzel, F.² (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, pp. 367–368
98.
Ibid., p. 368.
99.
Ratzel, F.² (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen., pp. 368–369.
100.
Ratzel, F.² (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, p. 369.
101.
Ibid., p. 368
102.
Ibid., p. 368.
103.
Ibid., pp. 369–370.
104.
Ratzel, F.² (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, pp. 360–361.
105.
Ratzel, F.² (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, p. 370.
106.
A magazine, main contributor of which was Ratzel.
107.
Ratzel, F.² (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, pp. 370–371.
108.
Ratzel, F.² (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, p. 371.
109.
Ibid., p. 371.
110.
Ibid., pp. 371–372.
111.
Ratzel, F.² (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, pp. 372–373.
112.
Ibid., p. 373.
113.
Ibid., pp. 373–374.
114.
This imbalance between legally identified and effectively controlled areas is a key research topic of Political Geography. See Sect. 1.3.2.1.
115.
Ratzel, F.⁵⁰ (1895): Dardanellen und Nil Ι, p. 513.
116.
Ratzel, F.⁵⁰ (1895): Dardanellen und Nil Ι, pp. 513–514.
117.
Ibid., p. 514.
118.
Ratzel, F.⁵⁰ (1895): Dardanellen und Nil Ι, pp. 515–516.
119.
Vorderasien: the southwestern part of Asia between the Mediterranean and the river Indus, including Asian Turkey, the Russian Transkafkasia, Persia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan and Arabia. Source: Bibliographisches Institut & F. A. Brockhaus AG, 2002, Sat_Wolf, Bayern.
120.
Ratzel, F.⁵⁰ (1895): Dardanellen und Nil Ι, p. 516.
121.
Once again, Ratzel’s multidimensional perception and his analytical power are revealed, which repulse any charge of geo-determinism.
122.
Ratzel, F.⁵⁰ (1895): Dardanellen und Nil Ι, pp. 516–517.
123.
Ratzel, F.⁵⁰ (1895): Dardanellen und Nil Ι, p. 517.
124.
Ibid., pp. 517–518.
125.
Ibid., p. 518.
126.
Ratzel, F.⁵⁰ (1895): Dardanellen und Nil Ι, p. 518.
127.
Ibid., p. 519.
128.
Ibid., pp. 519–520.
129.
Ratzel, F.⁵⁰ (1895): Dardanellen und Nil Ι, p. 519.
130.
Ibid., p. 520.
131.
Ratzel, F.⁵⁰ (1895): Dardanellen und Nil Ι, pp. 520–521.
132.
Ibid., pp. 521–522.
133.
Ratzel, Fr.⁵¹ (1895): Dardanellen und Nil ΙΙ, pp. 561–568.
134.
Ibid., p. 561.
135.
Ratzel, F.⁵¹ (1895): Dardanellen und Nil ΙΙ, pp. 562–563.
136.
See about Sect. 7.6.
137.
Ratzel, F.⁵¹ (1895): Dardanellen und Nil ΙΙ, p. 563.
138.
Ratzel, F.⁵¹ (1895): Dardanellen und Nil ΙΙ, p. 564.
139.
Ibid., p. 564.
140.
Ibid., p. 565.
141.
Ratzel, F.⁵¹ (1895): Dardanellen und Nil ΙΙ, pp. 565–566.
142.
Ibid., p. 566.
143.
Ratzel, F.⁵¹ (1895): Dardanellen und Nil ΙΙ, p. 567.
144.
Ibid., pp. 567–568.
145.
Ratzel, F.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 112.
146.
Ratzel, F.³ (1900): Die Großmächte der Zukunft, p. 45.
147.
Ibid., p. 44. He refers to the example of the German Customs Union, which contributed to the creation of a unified state, but did not achieve to expand via the creation of colonies.
148.
The Suez Canal had been funded by the Egyptians (44%) and the French, but was controlled by the English since 1895, as the vicegerent of Egypt, Ismael, had been forced in 1895 due to the economic crisis to sell his shares to the English, for the unthinkably low amount of 4 m. Sterling, straight from Rothschild’s bank.
149.
Ratzel³ (1900): Die Großmächte der Zukunft.
150.
Ratzel⁶, (1903): Die geographischen Bedingungen und Gesetze des Verkehrs und der Seestrategik, p. 512.
151.
Ratzel⁴, (1900): Das Meer als Quelle der Völkergröße, p. 31.

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Alexandros Stogiannos

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Stogiannos, A. (2019). Fr. Ratzel and the Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade. In: The Genesis of Geopolitics and Friedrich Ratzel. Historical Geography and Geosciences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98035-5_7

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98035-5_7
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