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The Current EU Approach in the Application of Alternative Benchmarks in Anti-Subsidy Investigations Against China

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The Use of Alternative Benchmarks in Anti-Subsidy Law

Part of the book series: European Yearbook of International Economic Law ((EYIELMONO,volume 4))

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Abstract

Bearing the state of the legal WTO framework on the use of alternative benchmark methodologies in NMES in mind, it shall now be scrutinised how the theoretical mechanisms are transposed in the case practice of investigating authorities, using the example of EU anti-subsidy investigations against China. Therefore, this chapter conducts a study of EU anti-subsidy cases against China with focus on the use of alternative benchmark methodologies (Sect. 4.1) and then examines the WTO law conformity of the EU’s approach (Sect. 4.2). Finally, it briefly depicts prospective developments on EU level (Sect. 4.3).

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Regulation (EU) 2016/1037 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2016 on protection against subsidised imports from countries not members of the European Union (Basic Anti-Subsidy Regulation), OJ 2016 L 176/55, 30.6.2016.

  2. 2.

    Guidelines for the Calculation of the Amount of Subsidy in Countervailing Duty Investigations, 98/C 394/04, OJ 1998 C 394/6, 17.12.1998.

  3. 3.

    Vermulst/Gatta, 11 World Trade Review (2012), 527, at 540.

  4. 4.

    Council Regulation (EC) No. 2026/97 of 6 October 1997 on protection against subsidized imports from countries not members of the European Community, OJ 1997 L 288/1, 21.10.1997.

  5. 5.

    OJ 2002 L 305/4, 7.11.2002.

  6. 6.

    See Sect. 3.2.2.2.2.

  7. 7.

    Adamantopoulos/Pereyra-Friedrichsen, EU Anti-Subsidy Law, at 5-052.

  8. 8.

    See e.g. Gold East Paper and Gold Huasheng Paper v Council, Case T-444/11, Judgment of the General Court (Third Chamber) of 11 September 2014, ECLI:EU:T:2014:773, at para. 11.

  9. 9.

    Regarding the development of the “soft law approach” in EU law see Cini, 8 Journal of European Public Policy (2011), 192, at 194 et seq.

  10. 10.

    Barani, ConWEB No. 2/2006, 1, at 28.

  11. 11.

    Barani, ConWEB No. 2/2006, 1, at 22.

  12. 12.

    Adamantopoulos/Pereyra-Friedrichsen, EU Anti-Subsidy Law, at 7-007; Bishop, European Union Law for International Business, at 83.

  13. 13.

    Adamantopoulos/Pereyra-Friedrichsen, EU Anti-Subsidy Law, at 7-002.

  14. 14.

    Avgustidi/Ballschmiede in Wolfrum et al. (eds.), Comparative Overview: Subsidies, at para. 177.

  15. 15.

    Adamantopoulos/Pereyra-Friedrichsen, EU Anti-Subsidy Law, at 7-017.

  16. 16.

    Van Bael/Bellis, EU Anti-Dumping and Other Trade Instruments, at 711.

  17. 17.

    Giannakopoulos, A Concise Guide to the EU Anti-dumping/Anti-subsidies Procedures, at 130; Adamantopoulos/Pereyra-Friedrichsen, EU Anti-Subsidy Law, at 7-024.

  18. 18.

    Giannakopoulos, A Concise Guide to the EU Anti-dumping/Anti-subsidies Procedures, at 131; Adamantopoulos/Pereyra-Friedrichsen, EU Anti-Subsidy Law, at 8-011.

  19. 19.

    Van Bael/Bellis, EU Anti-Dumping and Other Trade Instruments, at 711; Avgustidi/Ballschmiede in Wolfrum et al. (eds.), Comparative Overview: Subsidies, at para. 201.

  20. 20.

    As of 1 January 2018, see http://trade.ec.europa.eu/tdi/completed.cfm (last visited 1 January 2018).

  21. 21.

    As of 1 January2018, see http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2006/december/tradoc_113191.12.2015.xls, http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2017/january/tradoc_155243.pdf, http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2017/december/tradoc_156415.pdf and http://trade.ec.europa.eu/tdi/completed.cfm (last visited 1 January 2018).

  22. 22.

    As of 1 January 20182017, see http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2006/december/tradoc_113191.12.2015.xls, http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2017/january/tradoc_155243.pdf, http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2017/december/tradoc_156415.pdf and http://trade.ec.europa.eu/tdi/completed.cfm (last visited 1 January 2018).

  23. 23.

    See Introduction, at 3, in particular footnote 17.; consentient Vermulst/Gatta, 11 World Trade Review (2012), 527, at 537 et seq.

  24. 24.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No 452/2011 of 6 May 2011 imposing a definitive anti-subsidy duty on imports of coated fine paper originating in the People’s Republic of China, OJ 2011 L 128/18, 14.5.2011.

  25. 25.

    Coated Free Sheet Paper from the People’s Republic of China, Case C-570-907, Notice of Initiation of Countervailing Duty Investigations, 71 Fed. Reg. 68546, 27 November 2006; Qian, 46 Journal of World Trade (2012), 961, at 962.

  26. 26.

    Notice of initiation of an anti-subsidy proceeding concerning imports of coated fine paper originating in the People’s Republic of China (2010/C 99/13), OJ 2010 C 99, 30, 17.4.2010.

  27. 27.

    Coated Fine Paper (China), Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011 of 6 May 2011 imposing a definitive anti-subsidy duty on imports of coated fine paper originating in the People’s Republic of China, OJ 2011 L 128/18, 14.5.2011.

  28. 28.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011 of 6 May 2011 imposing a definitive anti-subsidy duty on imports of coated fine paper originating in the People’s Republic of China, OJ 2011 L 128/18, 14.5.2011.

  29. 29.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013 of 11 March 2013 imposing a countervailing duty on imports of certain organic coated steel products originating in the People’s Republic of China, OJ 2013 L 73/16, 15.3.2013.

  30. 30.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013 of 2 December 2013 imposing a definitive countervailing duty on imports of crystalline silicon photovoltaic modules and key components (i.e. cells) originating in or consigned from the People’s Republic of China, OJ 2013 L 325/66, 5.12.2013.

  31. 31.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 470/2014 of 13 May 2014 imposing a definitive anti-dumping duty and collecting definitively the provisional duty imposed on imports of solar glass originating in the People’s Republic of China, OJ 2014 L 142/23, 14.5.2014.

  32. 32.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1379/2014 of 16 December 2014 imposing a definitive countervailing duty on imports of certain filament glass fibre products originating in the People’s Republic of China and amending Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 248/2011 imposing a definitive anti-dumping duty on imports of certain continuous filament glass fibre products originating in the People’s Republic of China, OJ 2014 L 367/22, 23.12.2014.

  33. 33.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/969 of 8 June 2017 imposing definitive countervailing duties on imports of certain hot-rolled flat products of iron, non-alloy or other alloy steel originating in the People’s Republic of China and amending Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/649 imposing a definitive anti-dumping duty on imports of certain hot-rolled flat products of iron, non-alloy or other alloy steel originating in the People’s Republic of China, OJ 2017 L 146/17, 9.6.2017.

  34. 34.

    Commission Regulation (EU) No. 209/2011 of 2 March 2011 terminating the anti-dumping and anti-subsidy proceedings concerning imports of wireless wide area networking (WWAN) modems originating in the People’s Republic of China and terminating the registration of such imports imposed by Regulations (EU) No. 570/2010 and (EU) No. 811/2010, OJ 2011 L 58/36, 3.3.2011.

  35. 35.

    Commission Decision 2013/227/EU of 22 May 2013 terminating the anti-subsidy proceeding concerning imports of bicycles originating in the People’s Republic of China, OJ 2013 L 136/15, 23.5.2013.

  36. 36.

    Commission Implementing Decision 2014/918/EU of 16 December 2014 terminating the anti-subsidy proceeding concerning the imports of polyester staple fibres originating in the People’s Republic of China, India and Vietnam, OJ 2014 L 360/65, 17.12.2014.

  37. 37.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2015/1206 of 23 July 2015 terminating the anti-subsidy proceeding concerning imports of stainless steel cold-rolled flat products originating in the People’s Republic of China and repealing Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1331/2014 making imports of stainless steel cold-rolled flat products originating in the People’s Republic of China and Taiwan subject to registration, OJ 2015 L 196/4, 24.7.2015.

  38. 38.

    Notice of initiation of an anti-subsidy proceeding concerning imports of new and retreaded tyres for buses or lorries originating in the People’s Republic of China, OJ 2017 C 346/9, 14.10.2017.

  39. 39.

    Notice of initiation of an anti-subsidy proceeding concerning imports of electric bicycles originating in the People’s Republic of China, OJ 2017 C 440/22, 21.12.2017.

  40. 40.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 97.

  41. 41.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 97.

  42. 42.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 98.

  43. 43.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 75.

  44. 44.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 75.

  45. 45.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 75.

  46. 46.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 76.

  47. 47.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 77.

  48. 48.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 77.

  49. 49.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 78: “The industrial development policy is formulated based on the requirements of perfecting the reform of the socialist market economy and the related laws and regulations, so as to establish a fair market order and good development environment, solve the issues existing in the development of papermaking industry and direct the healthy development of the industry.”

  50. 50.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 78.

  51. 51.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 79.

  52. 52.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 83.

  53. 53.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 84.

  54. 54.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 85.

  55. 55.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 87.

  56. 56.

    Appellate Body Report, US – Anti-Dumping and Countervailing Duties (China), at para. 498.

  57. 57.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 98.

  58. 58.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 99.

  59. 59.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 99.

  60. 60.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 99.

  61. 61.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 326.

  62. 62.

    Regarding the dubiousness of the Commission’s argumentation see Vermulst/Gatta, 11 World Trade Review (2012), 527, at 549 et seq.

  63. 63.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 260.

  64. 64.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 249.

  65. 65.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 354.

  66. 66.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 251.

  67. 67.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 257.

  68. 68.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 261.

  69. 69.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 356.

  70. 70.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 357.

  71. 71.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 361.

  72. 72.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 165.

  73. 73.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 159.

  74. 74.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 166.

  75. 75.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 169.

  76. 76.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 172.

  77. 77.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 182.

  78. 78.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 173, 183.

  79. 79.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 177.

  80. 80.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 191.

  81. 81.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 192 et seq.

  82. 82.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 76.

  83. 83.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 77.

  84. 84.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 78.

  85. 85.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 81.

  86. 86.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 81.

  87. 87.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 82.

  88. 88.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 103.

  89. 89.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 111, 113.

  90. 90.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 114 for Panhua Group Co. Ltd. and at para. 115 for Zhejiang Huadong Light Steel Building Material Co. Ltd.

  91. 91.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 116.

  92. 92.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 118.

  93. 93.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 118.

  94. 94.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 120.

  95. 95.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 120 et seq.

  96. 96.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 53, 170.

  97. 97.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 171.

  98. 98.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 172.

  99. 99.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 173, 182.

  100. 100.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 190.

  101. 101.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 198.

  102. 102.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 199.

  103. 103.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 208.

  104. 104.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 203.

  105. 105.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 213.

  106. 106.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 213.

  107. 107.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 204 et seq.

  108. 108.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 205.

  109. 109.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 213.

  110. 110.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 213.

  111. 111.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 361 et seq.

  112. 112.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 364 et seq.

  113. 113.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 367.

  114. 114.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 367.

  115. 115.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 369.

  116. 116.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 371.

  117. 117.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 372.

  118. 118.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 470/2014, Solar Glass (China), at para. 71.

  119. 119.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 470/2014, Solar Glass (China), at para. 71.

  120. 120.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 470/2014, Solar Glass (China), at para. 83.

  121. 121.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 470/2014, Solar Glass (China), at para. 95.

  122. 122.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 470/2014, Solar Glass (China), at para. 105.

  123. 123.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 470/2014, Solar Glass (China), at para. 103.

  124. 124.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 470/2014, Solar Glass (China), at para. 182.

  125. 125.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 470/2014, Solar Glass (China), at para. 189.

  126. 126.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 470/2014, Solar Glass (China), at para. 190.

  127. 127.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 470/2014, Solar Glass (China), at para. 192.

  128. 128.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1379/2014, Certain Filament Glass Fibre Products (China), at para. 106.

  129. 129.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1379/2014, Certain Filament Glass Fibre Products (China), at para. 107.

  130. 130.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1379/2014, Certain Filament Glass Fibre Products (China), at para. 109.

  131. 131.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1379/2014, Certain Filament Glass Fibre Products (China), at para. 117.

  132. 132.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1379/2014, Certain Filament Glass Fibre Products (China), at para. 111.

  133. 133.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1379/2014, Certain Filament Glass Fibre Products (China), at para. 129 et seq.

  134. 134.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1379/2014, Certain Filament Glass Fibre Products (China), at para. 189.

  135. 135.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1379/2014, Certain Filament Glass Fibre Products (China), at para. 193.

  136. 136.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1379/2014, Certain Filament Glass Fibre Products (China), at para. 193.

  137. 137.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1379/2014, Certain Filament Glass Fibre Products (China), at para. 200.

  138. 138.

    Critical regarding scope and nature of the documents requested by the EU Commission in anti-subsidy investigations against China and the subsequent use of “facts available” Qian, 46 Journal of World Trade (2012), 961, at 962.

  139. 139.

    McNelis, 37 Journal of World Trade (2003), 647, at 656.

  140. 140.

    On the influence of decisions of the WTO judiciary see Sect. 3.1.2.4.1.

  141. 141.

    See Sect. 4.1.1.1.1.

  142. 142.

    On the relationship between WTO law and Appellate Body jurisprudence see Sect. 3.1.2.4.1.

  143. 143.

    On the WTO Appellate Body’s de facto stare decisis approach see Sect. 3.1.2.4.1.

  144. 144.

    On regulatory content and legal nature of the Guidelines see Sect. 4.1.1.2.

  145. 145.

    Regarding the required standard of evidence for the rejection of in-country benchmarks as distorted see Appellate Body Report, US – Anti-Dumping and Countervailing Duties (China), at para. 443 et seq.

  146. 146.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 75 et seq.; Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 172; Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 171; Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 470/2014, Solar Glass (China), at para. 93; Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1379/2014, Certain Filament Glass Fibre Products (China), at para 112.

  147. 147.

    Qian, 46 Journal of World Trade (2012), 961, at 962.

  148. 148.

    Appellate Body Report, US – Anti-Dumping and Countervailing Duties (China), at para. 443.

  149. 149.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 98.

  150. 150.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 99.

  151. 151.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 452/2011, Coated Fine Paper (China), at para. 326.

  152. 152.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 204 et seq.

  153. 153.

    See Sect. 4.2.1.2.2.1.

  154. 154.

    See Sect. 4.2.1.2.2.1.

  155. 155.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 1239/2013, Solar Panels (China), at para. 213.

  156. 156.

    Appellate Body Report, US – Anti-Dumping and Countervailing Duties (China), at para. 489.

  157. 157.

    See Sect. 4.2.1.2.3.2.

  158. 158.

    Vermulst/Gatta, 11 World Trade Review (2012), 527, at 573 et seq.

  159. 159.

    Vermulst/Gatta, 11 World Trade Review (2012), 527, at 547.

  160. 160.

    Regarding the required standard of evidence for the rejection of in-country benchmarks see Appellate Body Report, US – Anti-Dumping and Countervailing Duties (China), at para. 443 et seq.

  161. 161.

    Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 215/2013, Certain Organic Coated Steel Products (China), at para. 81.

  162. 162.

    See Sect. 4.2.1.1.2.

  163. 163.

    Appellate Body Report, US – Gasoline, at 23.

  164. 164.

    See Sect. 4.2.1.2.4.2.

  165. 165.

    See Sect. 3.2.3.2; Mueller, 50 Journal of World Trade (2016), 867, at 872 et seq.

  166. 166.

    For the applicability models see Sect. 3.2.3.2.4.1.

  167. 167.

    See Sect. 4.2.1.1.2.

  168. 168.

    See Sect. 4.2.2.1.

  169. 169.

    See Sect. 4.2.2.2.1.

  170. 170.

    Consentient Vermulst/Gatta, 11 World Trade Review (2012), 527, at 553.

  171. 171.

    Consentient Vermulst/Gatta, 11 World Trade Review (2012), 527, at 553.

  172. 172.

    Appellate Body decisions mandatorily legally bind only the respective parties of the dispute, see Sect. 3.1.2.4.1.

  173. 173.

    Regulation (EU) 2015/476 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 March 2015 on the measures that the Union may take following a report adopted by the WTO Dispute Settlement Body concerning anti-dumping and anti-subsidy matters, OJ 2015 L 83/6, 27.3.2015.

  174. 174.

    See Mueller, 50 Journal of World Trade (2016), 867, at 872 et seq.

  175. 175.

    See Sect. 3.1.2.3.

  176. 176.

    For an extensive discussion of the legal nature of the CAP and the subsequent question of its applicable amendment procedure see Qin, Wayne State University Law School Legal Studies Research Paper Series No. 09-18 (2009), 1, at 9 et seq.

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    Sophia Müller

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Müller, S. (2018). The Current EU Approach in the Application of Alternative Benchmarks in Anti-Subsidy Investigations Against China. In: The Use of Alternative Benchmarks in Anti-Subsidy Law. European Yearbook of International Economic Law(), vol 4. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77613-2_4

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