Occupation 1945–1946: Hope and Failure

Elliott, Oliver

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-76023-0_2

Oliver Elliott²

334 Accesses

Abstract

Oliver Elliott examines press coverage relating to three key themes: the establishment of the occupation government and a compliant press corps based in southern Korea, the emergence of a group of dissenting reporters based in Tokyo, and the public relations campaign organized by Syngman Rhee and his supporters. The chapter argues that much of the coverage from the occupation period was dominated by a racialized anti-Korean narrative that led most Americans to dismiss the prospects for democratic government in South Korea, and to discount growing signs of political polarization and extremism. The close relationships between news agency reporters and US military authorities, as well as between newspaper publishers and US military leaders, helped the military to suppress critical coverage.

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Notes

1.
Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War, Vol. 1: Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes, 1945–1947, 428–44.
2.
Millett, The War for Korea, 1945–1950: A House Burning, 52–71.
3.
Robinson wrote that he first began to question the occupation while working for its Bureau of Public Opinion in 1946. After reporting that Koreans were deeply unhappy with the occupation, he was transferred to the historical section of military intelligence where he was able to read high-level reports by occupation officials that he believed deliberately falsified information about the situation in South Korea: Richard D. Robinson, “A Personal Journey Through Time and Space,” Journal of International Business Studies 25, no. 3 (1994), 436–7; Richard D. Robinson [Will Hamlin], “Betrayal of a Nation” (Unpublished manuscript: Georgetown University Library, 1950), 2.
4.
Deane, The Korean War: 1945–1953, 23.
5.
Deane, for instance, claimed that, prior to 1950, the Seoul press corps primarily consisted of the wives of AMG personnel working as stringers for the main press agencies. In reality, the three major American press agencies had dedicated correspondents throughout this period: Deane, The Korean War: 1945–1953, 24.
6.
The impact of racialized and “orientalist” thinking on American officials in Korea has been explored in several recent studies: William Stueck and Boram Yi, “‘An Alliance Forged in Blood’: The American Occupation of Korea, the Korean War, and the US–South Korean Alliance,” Journal of Strategic Studies 33, no. 2 (2010), 177–209; Bruce Cumings, “American Orientalism at War in Korea and the United States,” in Orientalism and War, ed. by Tarak Barkawi and Ketih Stanski (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014); Charles Kraus, “American Orientalism in Korea,” Journal of American-East Asian Relations 22, no. 2 (2015), 147–65.
7.
Ronald Ian Heiferman, The Cairo Conference of 1943: Roosevelt, Churchill, Chiang Kai-Shek and Madame Chiang (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2011), 112.
8.
Erez Manela, The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 127–32; AP, “Korean Women and Children Speared,” Washington Post, 28 March 1919; “Japan’s Plan Unjust,” Washington Post, 27 July 1919.
9.
“Hope for Korea,” New York Times, 2 December 1943.
10.
Since Korea was rarely mentioned in American news media prior to World War II, Jimin Kim has argued that travel writing in the 1930s played a major role in cementing American perceptions of the backwardness of the Korean people. Magazines such as National Geographic generally depicted native Koreans as trapped in their traditional and underdeveloped ways of life, in stark contrast to the modernizing efforts of their Japanese rulers: Jimin Kim, “Representing the Invisible: The American Perceptions of Colonial Korea” (Unpublished Ph.D. diss.: Columbia University, 2011), 237–43.
11.
Klein, Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination 1945–1961, 26.
12.
The primary architect of the trusteeship concept was William Langdon, a State Department official who had served in the American consulate in Seoul in the 1930s. For a full account of how US plans for trusteeship evolved during and after World War II, see Matray, Reluctant Crusade: American Policy in Korea, 1941–50.
13.
Walter Lippmann, “Toward an Asiatic Settlement,” Washington Post, 28 June 1945. Lippmann probably read, or was briefed on, the contents of a confidential State Department report which emphasized the potential for political chaos in Korea and the necessity of American aid in the creation of an independent and democratic Korean republic; “An Estimate of Conditions in Asia and the Pacific at the Close of the War in the Far East and the Objectives and Policies of the United States,” 22 June 1945, FRUS 1945, 6, 556–80. Lippmann’s failure to justify the need for trusteeship received public criticism from at least one supporter of Korean independence: Inez Kong Pal, Letter “Lippmann on Korea,” Washington Post, 8 July 1945.
14.
Sumner Welles, “America’s Duty in Far East to Free All China from Foreign Intrusion,” Boston Globe, 30 August 1945.
15.
Rhee’s early life has been extensively explored in several biographies: Lew; Chong-Sik Lee, Syngman Rhee: The Prison Years of a Young Radical (Seoul: Yonsei University Press, 2001); Allen; Robert T. Oliver, Syngman Rhee: The Man Behind the Myth (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1954).
16.
Jay Jerome Williams, Letter “Korea Appeals for Our Help,” New York Herald Tribune, 10 September 1944; Colonel Ben C. Limb, Letter “Hope for Korea,” New York Herald Tribune, 8 November 1944.
17.
Rhee’s Christian faith was much commented on by the American press. Rhee claimed to have converted to Christianity while imprisoned by the Japanese in Korea. Although he initially identified as a Methodist, he left the Church in 1916 after a dispute over the segregation of Korean children in Hawaiian schools. See Allen, Korea’s Syngman Rhee: An Unauthorized Portrait, 54.
18.
Oliver, “My Life as a Korean Ghost,” 70.
19.
For more on the origins and political influence of the China Lobby, see Ross Y. Koen, The China Lobby in American Politics (New York: Harper & Row, 1974). On Luce’s relationship with China, see Herzstein, Henry R. Luce, Time, and the American Crusade in Asia.
20.
Henry Luce, “The American Century,” Life, 17 February 1941.
21.
“Voices in Bondage,” Time, 13 March 1944; “Missionaries to Korea,” Time, 13 March 1944.
22.
Luce to All Managing Editors, 12 June 1944, Time-Life-Fortune Papers, John Shaw Billings Papers, South Caroliniana Library, University of South Carolina.
23.
Frank Gibney, “Syngman Rhee: The Free Man’s Burden,” Harper’s Magazine, 1 February 1954.
24.
One notable success for Rhee was an admiring mention in Eleanor Roosevelt’s column “My Day” in April 1945.
25.
O. H. P. King, Tail of the Paper Tiger (Caldwell, ID: The Caxton Printers, 1961), 525.
26.
For more on McCormick’s background, see Richard Norton Smith, The Colonel: The Life and Legend of Robert R. McCormick, 1880–1955 (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2003).
27.
It is not entirely clear when or how McCormick and Rhee became acquainted. The first letter from Rhee to McCormick in McCormick’s personal papers, dated June 1946, indicated they had already known each other for some time before then: Rhee to McCormick, 28 June 1946, “Korea, 1946–1955 (Syngman Rhee)” Folder, Box 48, Papers of Colonel Robert R. McCormick, First Division Museum.
28.
Frank Kelley and Cornelius Ryan, Star-Spangled Mikado (New York: R. M. McBride, 1947), 186–95; “MacArthur’s Press Relations Deplored,” Editor & Publisher, 1 April 1950. For an account of how this censorship system functioned, see North to Lockheart, 11 August 1950, Box 5, C/S, U.S. Army Chief of Information, Unclassified Decimal File 1949–1950, 000.7 to 000.74, NARA.
29.
Charles J. Kelly, Tex McCrary: Wars-Women-Politics: An Adventurous Life Across the American Century (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Pub. Inc., 2009), 82–94. The biography does not discuss the trip to Korea.
30.
William Prochnau argued that Bigart’s suspicion of the establishment stemmed from two incidents during World War II which had confirmed to him the “bullshit logic” of warfighters. While reporting on a bombing mission against Germany in February 1943, Bigart had been asked to man the guns on a B-17 as it was attacked by German fighters over the English Channel. After returning home, he learned that one of the other bombers carrying a fellow war reporter had been shot down by friendly fire and that he might have been the one responsible. On another bombing raid against Japan in 1945, Bigart witnessed the crew of the bomber learn of the Japanese surrender halfway through the flight. Hoping to avoid risking their lives and causing further unnecessary deaths, the crew waited for a mission abort order. Instead, they flew on and completed the mission, killing an unknown number of Japanese after the war was already over: William Prochnau, Once Upon a Distant War (New York: Vintage, 1996), 36–7.
31.
Richard Kluger, The Paper: The Life and Death of the New York Herald Tribune (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1986), 364–71.
32.
Hohenberg, Foreign Correspondence: Great Reporters and Their Times, 244; Homer Bigart, “A Month After the Atomic Bomb: Hiroshima Still Can’t Believe It,” New York Herald Tribune, 3 September 1945.
33.
Langdon to Acheson, 26 November 1945, FRUS 1945, 6, 1134.
34.
Neal Stanford, “Korea Policy Defended,” Christian Science Monitor, 11 September 1945; “Liberation in Korea,” New York Times, 11 September 1945.
35.
Homer Bigart, “Hodge Backs Japanese Policing of Korea,” New York Herald Tribune, 12 September 1945.
36.
“Remaking The Conquered Peoples: Japan and Germany Under Occupation,” New York Times, 23 September 1945. On 22 September, US Army General George S. Patton caused a similar scandal when he told reporters at a press conference that he did not see the need for denazification and that the Nazi question was “much like a Democratic and Republican election fight.” After Patton failed to adequately explain his remarks, General Eisenhower removed him from his position as governor of Bavaria: Raymond Daniell, “Paton Belittles Denazification,” New York Times, 22 September 1945.
37.
John Walker to Time, 1 October 1945, Time Inc. Dispatches from Time magazine correspondents: First Series, 1942–1955, Houghton Library, Harvard College Library.
38.
William L. Shirer, “Korea Tangle Called Example of Bungling U.S. Foreign Policy,” New York Herald Tribune, 16 September 1945.
39.
George Silk to Time, 15 September 1945, Time Inc. Dispatches from Time magazine correspondents: First Series, 1942–1955, Houghton Library, Harvard College Library.
40.
“Korean Powder Keg,” Boston Globe, 13 September 1945; “Korea and the Pledge to Give Her Independence,” Baltimore Sun, 13 September 1945.
41.
“In Due Course,” Washington Post, 11 September 1945.
42.
Kelley and Ryan, Star-Spangled Mikado, 186. Kelley described MacArthur’s censorship as one of the most disgraceful episodes of the war in an article for the Herald Tribune: Frank Kelley, “MacArthur’s Censorship Off for U.S. Press,” New York Herald Tribune, 7 October 1945.
43.
“M’Arthur Sets Up Quota for Press,” New York Times, 13 October 1945; William J. Coughlin, Conquered Press: The MacArthur Era in Japanese Journalism (Palo Alto, CA: Pacific Books, 1952), 111–19.
44.
Kelley and Ryan, Star-Spangled Mikado, 194.
45.
Diary entry for 14 October 1946, Box 98, Mark Gayn Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto.
46.
“W. H. Buntin Sells Newspaper Interest,” Reno Gazette-Journal, 14 March 1942.
47.
Richard E. Lauterbach, “A Failure of the American Press,” PM, 11 October 1946.
48.
Diary entry for 14 October 1946, Box 98, Mark Gayn Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto. According to Gayn, the supportive relationship between journalists and military officials was reciprocated and on at least one occasion an intervention by General Hodge saved William Buntin from being recalled by INS for his poor behavior.
49.
AP, “Democracy Action ‘Bursting’ in Korea,” Christian Science Monitor, 10 April 1946.
50.
Millett, The War for Korea, 1945–1950: A House Burning, 60–1; Richard Johnston, “Radicals in Korea Hit Gen. A. V. Arnold,” New York Times, 30 October 1945.
51.
Harold Isaacs, “Do We Run Korea Badly? Well, Look How Reds Do,” Newsweek, 24 September 1945.
52.
Palmer Hoyt Jr., “Political Tugging in Korea,” Free World, March 1946.
53.
Correspondent databook entry for Richard Johnston, Box 55, New York Times Company Records. Foreign Desk Records, Manuscripts and Archives Division, NYPL.
54.
“Richard Johnston Is Dead At Age 76,” New York Times, 25 December 1986.
55.
Richard Johnston, “Eager Koreans Help Us to Run Their Country,” New York Times, 30 September 1945.
56.
Richard Johnston, “Major Freedoms Restored in Korea,” 20 September 1945, New York Times; Richard Johnston, “Korea’s Gaiety Survives Bondage,” New York Times, 21 October 1945.
57.
Richard Johnston, “Party Rift Widens in Korea Dispute,” New York Times, 18 January 1946.
58.
Untitled report on Pak controversy, Box 1, General Correspondence 1943–46, USAFIK Commandant’s Office, RG554, NARA. According to Bruce Cumings, Stars & Stripes reporter Sgt. Robert Cornwall accused Johnston of misrepresenting Pak’s comments in an article in the English-language Seoul Times but there are no existent copies of the newspaper: Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War, Vol. 1: Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes, 1945–1947, 224–5.
59.
Diary entry for 20 October 1946, Box 98, Mark Gayn Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto; for an example of this anti-leftist coverage, see “Korean Christians Cite Abuse by Reds,” New York Times, 14 March 1946.
60.
Diary entry for 24 October 1946, Box 98, Mark Gayn Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto.
61.
Diary entry for 18 October 1946, Box 98, Mark Gayn Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto.
62.
Richard Johnston, “Japan Looks Good After Korean Stay,” New York Times, 30 September 1946.
63.
Johnston to Hodge, 27 January 1947, Box 2, General Correspondence 1947, USAFIK Commandant’s Office, RG554, NARA. The contents of this letter are discussed in Chap. 3.
64.
Hodge to MacArthur, 22 November 1945, FRUS 1945, 6, 1133.
65.
“Services Held for Former Man of Year,” Tustin News, 3 January 1980.
66.
During the Korean War, MacArthur claimed that there had not been a single security breach providing assistance to the enemy: MacArthur to CINFO, 28 September 1950, Box 5, C/S, U.S. Army Chief of Information, Unclassified Decimal File 1949–1950, 000.7 to 000.74, NARA.
67.
Diary entry for 18 October 1946, Box 98, Mark Gayn Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto.
68.
Mark Gayn letter, 16 June 1946, Box 4, Mark Gayn Papers, Mark Gayn Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto.
69.
Mark Gayn, Journey From The East (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1944), 180–90.
70.
Gordon Walker, “Censorship: Pacific Wall,” Christian Science Monitor, 10 October 1945.
71.
Coughlin, Conquered Press: The MacArthur Era in Japanese Journalism, 113.
72.
Erwin B. Canham, Commitment to Freedom, the Story of the Christian Science Monitor (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1958), i–xx.
73.
Canham, 52. In the 1930s, correspondents picked the New York Times, Christian Science Monitor and Baltimore Sun as the three most reliable and fair papers in the country: Leo C. Rosten, The Washington Correspondents (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Company, 1937), 356.
74.
Gayn’s involvement in the Amerasia scandal was used by his critics to cast doubt on the legitimacy of his reporting: see, for instance, Westbrook Pegler, The Cincinnati Enquirer, 11 August 1950. For more on the background of the Amerasia case, see Harvey Klehr, The Amerasia Spy Case: Prelude to McCarthyism (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
75.
Sally Gayn letter, 11 June 1946, Box 4, Mark Gayn Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto.
76.
Walker and Gayn did not meet each other until Walker returned to Japan in early 1946, following an extended trip to Korea and China. During their first dinner together, they made an agreement to “join forces reportorially,” although it was not clear what this meant in practice: Mark Gayn letter, 16 June 1946, Box 4, Mark Gayn Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto.
77.
Benis to USAFK, 29 November 1945, Box 1, General Correspondence 1943–46, USAFIK Commandant’s Office, RG554, NARA.
78.
Gordon Walker, “Americans Vie With Russians to Sell Democracy in Korea,” Christian Science Monitor, 29 October 1945.
79.
Gordon Walker, “U.S. Policy in Korea: Found Warped by Untutored AMG,” Christian Science Monitor, 13 November 1945.
80.
Gordon Walker, “Blunders May Provoke Civil War in Korea,” Observer, 18 November 1945.
81.
Langdon to Byrnes, 26 November 1945, FRUS 1945, 6, 1136.
82.
Gayn letter, 16 June 1946, Box 4, Mark Gayn Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto.
83.
Hodge to MacArthur, 1 January 1946, Box 1, General Correspondence 1943–46, USAFIK Commandant’s Office, RG554, NARA.
84.
Mark Gayn, Japan Diary (New York: William Sloane Associates, 1948), 450.
85.
Audrey Menefee, Washington Post columnist and former chief of the US propaganda monitoring service for the Far East, called for a detailed examination of the situation in Korea in response to Walker’s reporting: Audrey Menefee, “Solution for Korea,” Washington Post, 24 November 1945.
86.
Richard E. Lauterbach, “A Failure of the American Press,” PM, 11 October 1946.
87.
“Korean Independence,” New York Times, 29 December 1945. Similar views appeared even in more liberal newspapers: Rodney Gilbert, “Koreans and Their Faith in America,” Christian Science Monitor, 7 January 1946; “Korean Uncertainty,” Washington Post, 19 February 1946.
88.
For a discussion of the causes of the Autumn Harvest Uprising, see Millett, The War for Korea, 1945–1950: A House Burning, 86–91.
89.
Ralph Chapman, “Army Extends Martial Law in Korean Rioting,” New York Herald Tribune, 6 October 1946.
90.
Ralph Chapman, “Troop Curfew Set on Eve of Korea Holiday,” New York Herald Tribune, 11 October 1946; Ralph Chapman, “U.S. Army Rule Relaxed in Riot Zone of Korea,” New York Herald Tribune, 13 October 1946.
91.
Diary entry for 13 October 1946, Box 98, Mark Gayn Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto.
92.
Diary entry for 16 October 1946, Box 98, Mark Gayn Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto.
93.
General Hodge’s spokesmen also used briefings with journalists to reveal captured communist documents relating to the uprising, including one which outlined a scheme to establish a 500,000-man underground army in southern Korea: AP, “Korean Reds Accused,” New York Times, 26 October 1946; UP, “U.S. Tanks Patrol Seoul After Riot,” New York Times, 22 October 1946.
94.
Charlotte Ebener, No Facilities for Women (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1954), 54.
95.
“Searchlight on Korea” series, Box 29, Philip Jaffe Papers, Rose Library Archives, Emory University.
96.
“Korea: The Russians Came,” Time, 28 January 1946. The story was written by a friend of Gayn’s, although he agreed with the AMG official that the article “stank.”
97.
Diary entry for 18 October, Box 98, Mark Gayn Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto.
98.
Foster Hailey , “Prominent Leftist Arrested in Korea,” New York Times, 21 October 1946. This was the only story Hailey wrote during his time in Korea, although he later positively reviewed Gayn’s published account of this period in the Times. He wrote that Gayn reminded him of an “old time police reporter” with a “slightly misanthropic view of his fellow man, who believed nothing he didn’t see with his own eyes and only half of that”: Foster Hailey, “Japan – Fact and Evaluation,” New York Times, 5 December 1948.
99.
Diary entry for 29 October, Box 98, Mark Gayn Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto.
100.
Gayn, Japan Diary, 443.
101.
Diary entry for 16 October, Box 98, Mark Gayn Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto.
102.
Mark Gayn, “Korean Appeal for Allies to Act,” Chicago Sun , 18 October 1946.
103.
Diary entry for 18 October 1946, Box 98, Mark Gayn Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto.
104.
Mark Gayn, “Korea Election May Be Voided,” Chicago Sun , 11 November 1946. Nothing came of this attempt.
105.
“Searchlight on Korea” series, Box 29, Philip Jaffe Papers, Rose Library Archives, Emory University.
106.
Gayn claimed he had great difficulty getting the series out of Japan due to rigid military censorship : Gayn to Dimitman, 12 November 1946, Box 4, Mark Gayn Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto.
107.
Gayn letter, 2 February 1947, Box 4, Mark Gayn Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto. While in Japan, Dimitman told Gayn’s former colleagues that he had rejected the series because it was “too violent.”
108.
Mark Gayn, “In Korea,” New Republic, 15 September 1947.
109.
The series was printed between 2 and 6 November 1947. For the first article, see Mark Gayn, “’Liberators’ Turned Zones Into Military Bases,” PM, 2 November 1947.
110.
Fromm to Mark and Sally Gayn, 3 August 1947, Box 4, Mark Gayn Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto.
111.
Newsweek published just one report during Charlotte Ebener’s time in South Korea, a brief summary of the AMG’s account of the October riots: “Korea: Master Plan,” Newsweek, 4 November 1946. In her memoir, Ebener wrote that she was initially sceptical of the leftist groups in Korea and knew that the military government suspected Gayn of being a communist. However, she admired the way he persisted in investigating the causes of the riots instead of accepting the official line like other correspondents. She was forced to leave South Korea early when the military refused to give her permission to visit the island of Cheju, which had been the only region to elect a leftist candidate to the interim assembly: Ebener, No Facilities for Women, 65.
112.
“Korea: Mounting Chaos,” Time, 7 October 1946.
113.
“Korea: Rx for Corns,” Time , 14 October 1946. Time’s editors had close contact with several senior officials in the Department of State, in particular Ed Pauley, President Truman’s reparations commissioner, who had prepared a major report advocating Korean-led autonomy for southern Korea in the summer of 1946. State Department officials still believed that a young liberal leader could emerge in the south. Rhee, on the other hand, would push Korean politics far to the right and end any chance of a rapprochement with the Soviet-occupied north. Almost all of the discussion about Korea in Time’s editorial correspondence for 1946 relates to private briefings by or about Department of State officials, including Pauley. For example, see Brecht to Welch, 30 May 1946, Time Inc. Dispatches from Time magazine correspondents: First Series, 1942–1955, Houghton Library, Harvard College Library.
114.
Hodge to Hearst, January 1948, Box 3, General Correspondence 1948, USAFIK Commandant’s Office, RG554, NARA.
115.
Oliver, Syngman Rhee and American Involvement in Korea; 1942–1960, 19.
116.
Richard Johnston, “Rhee Calls Korea to Resist Division,” New York Times, 21 October 1945.
117.
Richard Johnston, “Rhee, in Korea, Opposes Division; Urges Unity to Convince World,” New York Times, 18 October 1945.
118.
Keith Wheeler, “Korea’s Provisional President,” Boston Globe, 1 December 1945.
119.
Gordon Walker, “Exiled Koreans Cast as Leaders,” Christian Science Monitor, 3 November 1945.
120.
Goodfellow to Rhee, 4 September 1958, Box 1, Millard Preston Goodfellow Papers, Hoover Institution Archives.
121.
Goodfellow to Rhee, 8 July 1946, Box 1, Millard Preston Goodfellow Papers, Hoover Institution Archives.
122.
Goodfellow to Rhee, 1 November 1946, Box 1, Millard Preston Goodfellow Papers, Hoover Institution Archives.
123.
Limb had followed Syngman Rhee to the United States in the 1910s and worked on and off as a Rhee lobbyist in Washington over the following decades. During World War II, Rhee bolstered Limb’s credentials with a military commission to the rank of colonel in the practically non-existent provisional government army.
124.
“Bringing Cause of Korea to Avenue of Americas,” New York Times, 2 April 1946.
125.
Louise Yim, My Forty Year Fight for Korea (New York: A. A. Wyn, 1951), 257–63.
126.
Goodfellow to Rhee, 27 September 1946, Box 1, Millard Preston Goodfellow Papers, Hoover Institution Archives.
127.
Hodge to Goodfellow, October 1946, Box 1, Millard Preston Goodfellow Papers, Hoover Institution Archives.
128.
Will Hamlin (pseudonym for Richard D. Robinson), “Korea: An American Tragedy,” Nation, 1 March 1947.
129.
Richard Johnston, “Eager Koreans help US to run their country,” New York Times, 29 September 1945.

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Elliott, O. (2018). Occupation 1945–1946: Hope and Failure. In: The American Press and the Cold War. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76023-0_2

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