Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Explaining European Identity Formation pp 41–100Cite as

The Sources of European Identity: A Theoretical Model for Explaining Individual Identification with Europe

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Abstract

The chapter develops a theoretical model for explaining individual identification with Europe that systematically links approaches to collective identity in social psychology and explanatory factors of European identification deduced from public opinion research. The comprehensive theoretical framework includes both individual attributes and characteristics of the national context as explanatory factors of European identity formation in the EU mass public. The discussion pays particular attention to the implications of two key events in the recent history of European integration for the formation of a collective European identity among EU citizens: the EU’s enlargement to Central and Eastern Europe in 2004/2007 and the financial and economic crisis that has affected the EU and its member states from 2008 onwards.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   89.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    As previously discussed, reverse effects are equally possible, with better informed citizens and those with more experience with other Europeans and EU integration identifying less with Europe. The theoretical model of European identification with Europe accounts for both positive and negative effects by developing alternative hypotheses for empirical analysis.

  2. 2.

    A second source of heterogeneity in the formation of European identification may spring from developments at the European level. That is, while singular events and changes in the process of European integration over time a priori affect all EU member states, citizens within member states may still perceive and experience these changes and events in different ways, depending on differences in member states’ political, economic, or social characteristics. Section 3.3 will discuss this second source of variation in European identification by exploring variation in the determinants of European identification by member state, first, in response to the EU’s eastward enlargement 2004/2007, and, second, the wake of the economic and financial crisis starting in 2008.

  3. 3.

    The financial and economic interdependencies between Eurozone countries became clearer after the onset of the crisis. These changes and their implications for the effects or Eurozone membership on European identification are discussed in Sect. 3.3.3.

  4. 4.

    Prior to Eastern enlargement, no more than three countries had joined the EU at the same time.

  5. 5.

    The ten new member states joining the EU in 2004 added only about 5% to the EU’s GDP (at current prices). At the time of accession, only Cyprus and Slovenia reached comparable or higher per capita income levels than the least affluent EU15 member states Greece and Portugal. Per capita income in the new member states ranged from about 43% of the EU15 average in Latvia to about 78% in Cyprus. For a detailed account of GDP/capita and comparison of old and new member states, see European Commission (2006).

  6. 6.

    In 2004, the average labour productivity in the new member states was less than two thirds of the EU15 level. Employment rates stood at 56% in the new member states versus 65% in the EU15, while total unemployment was 13% in CEE and 8% in the EU15. For a detailed account of labour productivity and employment and unemployment rates in old and new member states, see European Commission (2006).

  7. 7.

    Shares of population at risk of poverty ranged from less than 10% in the Czech Republic, Luxemburg, and Slovenia to more than 20% in Greece, Ireland, and Portugal (European Commission 2006).

  8. 8.

    See European Commission (2009b) for a detailed account of types and volume of EU transfers allocated to old and new member states after enlargement.

  9. 9.

    See e.g. Caporaso et al. (2015) and Ioannou et al. (2015) for more detailed summaries of the integrative steps taken in response to the crisis.

  10. 10.

    Between November 2008 and July 2012, bailout programmes were initiated for Cyprus, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Latvia, Portugal, Romania, and Spain.

  11. 11.

    By way of example: In Germany, the ESM was challenged in Constitutional Court, most notably by MPs from the government coalition, while public opinion polls showed a clear majority of respondents opposed to bailout payments (see results reported in Bechtel et al. 2014; Forschungsgruppe Wahlen 2010a, b, 2011a, b, c, 2012a, b). In France, too, public opinion polls found a majority to oppose further bailout measures for Greece (Bloomberg News 2011). In Slovakia, parliament initially rejected the expansion of EFSF whereas in Finland, parliament only reluctantly agreed to expand the EFSF.

References

  • Anderson, B. (1991). Imagined communities: Reflections on the origins and spread of nationalism. London/New York: Verso.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armingeon, K., & Baccaro, L. (2012). The sorrows of young euro: policy responses to the sovereign debt crisis. In N. Bermeo & J. Pontusson (Eds.), Coping with crisis: Government reactions to the great recession (pp. 162–198). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armingeon, K., & Ceka, B. (2014). The loss of trust in the European Union during the great recession since 2007: The role of heuristics from the national political system. European Union Politics, 15(1), 82–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Armingeon, K., & Guthmann, K. (2014). Democracy in crisis? The declining support for national democracy in European countries, 2007–2011. European Journal of Political Research, 53(3), 423–442.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arnold, C., Sapir, E. V., & de Vries, C. (2012). Parties’ positions on European integration: Issue congruence, ideology or context? West European Politics, 35(6), 1341–1362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Auel, K., & Höing, O. (2014). Parliaments in the Euro crisis: Can the losers of integration still fight back? JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies, 52(6), 1184–1193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartle, J. (2000). Political awareness, opinion constraint and the stability of ideological positions. Political Studies, 48(3), 467–484.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • BBC News. (2010). Greece police tear gas anti-austerity protesters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bechtel, M. M., Hainmueller, J., & Margalit, Y. (2014). Preferences for international redistribution: The divide over the Eurozone bailouts. American Journal of Political Science, 58(4), 835–856.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bellucci, P., Sanders, D., & Serricchio, F. (2012). Explaining European identity. In D. Sanders, P. Bellucci, G. Tóka, & M. Torcal (Eds.), The Europeanization of national polities? Citizenship and support in a post-enlargement union (pp. 61–90). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Bickerton, C. J., Hodson, D., & Puetter, U. (2015). The new intergovernmentalism: European integration in the post-maastricht era. Journal of Common Market Studies, 53(4), 703–722.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bieling, H.-J. (2012). EU facing the crisis: Social and employment policies in times of tight budgets. Transfer: European Review of Labour and Research, 18(3), 255–271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bloomberg News. (2011). French People Oppose Second Greek Bailout, Ifop Poll Shows.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boomgaarden, H. G., Vliegenthart, R., de Vreese, C. H., & Schuck, A. R. T. (2010). News on the move: Exogenous events and news coverage of the European Union. Journal of European Public Policy, 17(4), 506–526.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bornschier, S. (2010). The new cultural divide and the two-dimensional political space in Western Europe. West European Politics, 33(3), 419–444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bornschier, S. (2011). National political conflict and identity formation: The diverse nature of the threat from the extreme left and extreme populist right. In D. Fuchs, & H.-D. Klingemann (Eds.), Cultural diversity, European identity and the legitimacy of the EU (pp. 171–200, Studies in EU reform and enlargement). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

    Google Scholar 

  • Braun, M., & Müller, W. (2012). National and transnational identities of intra-European migrants. In F. Höllinger & M. Hadler (Eds.), Crossing borders, shifting boundaries: National and transnational identities in Europe and beyond. Festschrift für Max Haller (pp. 263–287). Campus Verlag: Frankfurt/New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, M. B. (2001). The many faces of social identity: Implications for political psychology. Political Psychology, 22(1), 115–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brubaker, R. (1992). Citizenship and nationhood in France and Germany. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruter, M. (2004). Civic and cultural components of a European identity: A pilot model of measurement of citizens’ levels of European identity. In R. K. Herrmann, T. Risse, & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Transnational identities. Becoming European in the EU (pp. 186–213). Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruter, M. (2005). Citizens of Europe? The emergence of a mass European identity. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Büttner, S., & Mau, S. (2010). Horizontale Europäisierung und Europäische Integration. In M. Eigmüller & S. Mau (Eds.), Gesellschaftstheorie und Europapolitik. Sozialwissenschaftliche Ansätze zur Europaforschung (pp. 274–317). VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften: Wiesbaden.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Caporaso, J. A., Kim, M.-H., Durrett, W. N., & Wesley, R. B. (2015). Still a regulatory state? The European Union and the financial crisis. Journal of European Public Policy, 22(7), 889–907.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carrubba, C. J. (2001). The electoral connection in European Union politics. The Journal of Politics, 63(1), 141–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cerutti, F. (2003). A political identity of the Europeans? Thesis Eleven, 72(1), 26–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chong, D., & Druckman, J. N. (2007). Framing theory. Annual Review of Political Science, 10(1), 103–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Citrin, J., & Sides, J. (2004). More than nationals: How identity choice matters in the New Europe. In R. K. Herrmann, T. Risse, & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Transnational identities. Becoming European in the EU (pp. 161–185). Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.

    Google Scholar 

  • Citrin, J., Reingold, B., & Green, D. P. (1990). American identity and the politics of ethnic change. Journal of Politics, 52(4), 1124–1154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, N., & Hellwig, T. (2012). Information effects and mass support for EU policy control. European Union Politics, 13(4), 535–557.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clements, B., Nanou, K., & Verney, S. (2014). ‘We no longer love you, but we don’t want to leave you’: The Eurozone crisis and popular Euroscepticism in Greece. Journal of European Integration, 36(3), 247–265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Closa, C., & Maatsch, A. (2014). In a spirit of solidarity? Justifying the European financial stability facility (EFSF) in national parliamentary debates. Journal of Common Market Studies, 52(4), 826–842.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Converse, P. E. (1964). The nature of belief systems in mass publics. In D. E. Apter (Ed.), Ideology and its discontents. New York: The Free Press of Glencoe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cross, M. K. D., & Ma, X. (2013). EU Crises and the International Media. ARENA Working Papers. Oslo: Arena Centre for European Studies, University of Oslo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curtis, K. A. (2014). Inclusive versus exclusive: A cross-national comparison of the effects of subnational, national, and supranational identity. European Union Politics, 15(4), 521–546.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Vreese, C. H. (2001). ‘Europe’ in the news: A cross-national comparative study of the news coverage of key EU events. European Union Politics, 2(3), 283–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Vreese, C. H. (2003). Framing Europe. Television news and European integration (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Vreese, C. H. (2007). A spiral of Euroscepticism: The media’s fault? Acta Politica, 42(2-3), 271–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Vreese, C. H., & Boomgaarden, H. G. (2006a). Media effects on public opinion about the enlargement of the European Union. JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies, 44(2), 419–436.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Vreese, C. H., & Boomgaarden, H. G. (2006b). Media message flows and interpersonal communication the conditional nature of effects on public opinion. Communication Research, 33(1), 19–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Vreese, C. H., & Boomgaarden, H. G. (2006c). News, political knowledge and participation: The differential effects of news media exposure on political knowledge and participation. Acta Politica, 41(4), 317–341.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Vries, C. E., & Arnold, C. (2011). Making the polity: Exploring the linkage between European citizens’ and political elites’ preference for European Union public policy. In D. Fuchs & H.-D. Klingemann (Eds.), Cultural diversity, European identity and the legitimacy of the EU (pp. 201–219). Cheltenham/Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Vries, C. E., & Edwards, E. E. (2009). Taking Europe to its extremes: Extremist parties and public Euroscepticism. Party Politics, 15(1), 5–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delanty, G. (2002). Models of European identity: Reconciling universalism and particularism. Perspectives on European Politics and Society, 3(3), 345–359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delli Carpini, M. X., & Keeter, S. (1996). What Americans know about politics and why it matters. New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deutsch, K. W. (1953a). Nationalism and social communication: An inquiry into the foundations of nationality. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deutsch, K. W. (1953b). Political community at the international level: Problems of definition and measurement. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deutsch, K. W., Burrell, S. A., & Kann, R. A. (1957). Political community and the North Atlantic area: International organization in the light of historical experience. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • di Mauro, D. (2014). Is the honeymoon over? Explaining Italy’s mass support and opposition towards Europe. Perspectives on European Politics and Society, 15(2), 143–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diez Medrano, J. (2003). Framing Europe: Attitudes to European integration in Germany, Spain, and the United Kingdom. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diez Medrano, J. (2014). Individual and collective responses to crisis: An analytical framework for the study of social resilience. Partecipazione e Conflitto. Special issue: New Directions in Political Sociology, 7(3), 532–550.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diez Medrano, J., & Gray, E. (2010). Framing the European Union in national public spheres. In R. Koopmans & P. Statham (Eds.), The making of a European public sphere. Media discourse and political contention (pp. 195–219). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Diez Medrano, J., & Gutiérrez, P. (2001). Nested identities: National and European identity in Spain. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 24(5), 753–778.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dinan, D. (2012). Governance and institutions: Impact of the escalating crisis. Journal of Common Market Studies, 50(s2 – Special Issue: The JCMS Annual Review of the European Union in 2011), 85–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dinan, D. (2013a). EU Governance and institutions: Stresses above and below the waterline. Journal of Common Market Studies, 51(S1 – Special Issue: The JCMS Annual Review of the European Union in 2012), 89–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dinan, D. (2013b). The post-Lisbon European council presidency: An interim assessment. West European Politics, 36(6), 1256–1273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duchesne, S., & Frognier, A.-P. (1995). Is there a European identity? In O. Niedermayer & R. Sinnott (Eds.), Public opinion and internationalized government. Vol. 2 of Beliefs in government (pp. 193–226). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duchesne, S., & Frognier, A.-P. (2008). National and European identifications: A dual relationship. Comparative European Politics, 6(2), 143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dursun-Ozkanca, O. (2011). European Union enlargement and British public opinion: The agenda-setting power of the press. Perspectives on European Politics and Society, 12(2), 139–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, 43(4), 51–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. (2006). Enlargement, two years after: An economic evaluation. European Economy Occasional Papers. Brussels: European Communities.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. (2009a). Economic crisis in Europe: Causes, consequences and responses (Vol. 7). Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. (2009b). Five years of an enlarged EU. Economic achievements and challenges. European Communities: Brussels.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. (2011a). European economic forecast spring 2011. Brussels: European Union.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. (2011b). Media use in the European Union. Report. Standard Eurobarometer 76, Autumn 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. (2012a). Employment and social developments in Europe 2012. Luxembourg: Publication Office of the European Union.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. (2012b). Media use in the European Union. Report. Standard Eurobarometer 78, Autumn 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Council. (1993). Conclusions of the presidency. Copenhagen, 21–22 June 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fligstein, N. (2008). Euroclash: The EU, European identity, and the future of Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forschungsgruppe Wahlen. (2010a). Politbarometer Dezember II 2010: Mehrheit gegen stärkere Finanzhilfen für verschuldete EU-Staaten. Politbarometer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forschungsgruppe Wahlen. (2010b). Politbarometer März II 2010: Zwei Drittel der Bürger gegen deutsche Kredite für Griechenland. Politbarometer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forschungsgruppe Wahlen. (2011a). Politbarometer Juni 2011: Mehrheit gegen weitere Finanzhilfen für Griechenland. Politbarometer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forschungsgruppe Wahlen. (2011b). Politbarometer Oktober I 2011: Mehrheit gegen Schuldenschnitt für Griechenland. Politbarometer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forschungsgruppe Wahlen. (2011c). Politbarometer September I 2011: Deutliche Mehrheit gegen Erweiterung des Euro-Rettungsschirms. Politbarometer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forschungsgruppe Wahlen. (2012a). Politbarometer August 2012: Griechenland: Zwei Drittel gegen mehr Zeit. Politbarometer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forschungsgruppe Wahlen. (2012b). Politbarometer Januar II 2012: Mehrheit gegen Aufstockung des Euro-Rettungsschirms. Politbarometer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franklin, M., Marsh, M., & McLaren, L. (1994). Uncorking the bottle – Popular opposition to European unification in the wake of Maastricht. Journal of Common Market Studies, 32(4), 455–472.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs, D. (2011). Cultural diversity, European identity and legitimacy of the EU: A theoretical framework. In D. Fuchs & H.-D. Klingemann (Eds.), Cultural diversity, European identity and the legitimacy of the EU (pp. 27–57). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs, D., & Schneider, C. (2011). Support of the EU and European identity: Some descriptive results. In D. Fuchs & H.-D. Klingemann (Eds.), Cultural diversity, European identity and the legitimacy of the EU (pp. 61–85). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs, D., Guinaudeau, I., & Schubert, S. (2009). National identity, European identity, and Euroscepticism. In D. Fuchs, R. Magni-Berton, & A. Roger (Eds.), Euroscepticism. Images of Europea among mass publics and political elites (pp. 91–112). Opladen/Farmington Hills: Barbara Budrich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gabel, M. J., & Scheve, K. (2007a). Estimating the effect of elite communications on public opinion using instrumental variables. American Journal of Political Science, 51(4), 1013–1028.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gabel, M. J., & Scheve, K. (2007b). Mixed messages: Party dissent and mass opinion on European integration. European Union Politics, 8(1), 37–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garry, J., & Tilley, J. (2009). The macroeconomic factors conditioning the impact of identity on attitudes towards the EU. European Union Politics, 10(3), 361–379.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gottschalck, N. (2011/2012). The Eurocrisis – a European crisis? (pp. 1–75). Paris: Centre international de formation européenne – Institut européen – European Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, D. M. (2007). The Europeans: Political identity in an emerging polity. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guinaudeau, I. (2011). National and European identity: The case of France. In D. Fuchs & H.-D. Klingemann (Eds.), Cultural diversity, European identity and the legitimacy of the EU (pp. 123–140). Cheltenham/Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helbling, M., & Tresch, A. (2011). Measuring party positions and issue salience from media coverage: Discussing and cross-validating new indicators. Electoral Studies, 30(1), 174–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hellström, J. (2008). Who leads, who follows? Re-examining the party-electorate linkages on European integration. Journal of European Public Policy, 15(8), 1127–1144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herrmann, R. K., & Brewer, M. B. (2004). Identities and institutions: Becoming European in the EU. In R. K. Herrmann, T. Risse, & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Transnational identities. Becoming European in the EU (pp. 1–22). Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hix, S. (1999). Dimensions and alignments in European Union politics: Cognitive constraints and partisan responses. European Journal of Political Research, 35(1), 69–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodson, D., & Puetter, U. (2013). The European Union and the economic crisis. In M. Cini & N. Pérez-Solórzano Borragán (Eds.), European Union politics (4th ed., pp. 367–439). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooghe, L., & Marks, G. (2004). Does identity or economic rationality drive public opinion on European integration? Political Science and Politics, 37(3), 415–420.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooghe, L., & Marks, G. (2005). Calculation, community and cues – Public opinion on European integration. European Union Politics, 6(4), 419–443.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hooghe, L., & Marks, G. (2009). A postfunctionalist theory of European integration: From permissive consensus to constraining dissensus. British Journal of Political Science, 39(01), 1–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hooghe, L., Marks, G., & Wilson, C. J. (2002). Does left/right structure party positions on European integration? Comparative Political Studies, 35(8), 965–989.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hooghe, L., Marks, G., & Wilson, C. J. (2004). Does left/right structure party positions on European integration? In G. Marks & M. R. Steenbergen (Eds.), European integration and political conflict (pp. 120–140). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hutter, S., & Grande, E. (2014). Politicizing Europe in the national electoral arena: A comparative analysis of five West European countries, 1970–2010. Journal of Common Market Studies, 52(5), 1002–1018.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutter, S., & Kerscher, A. (2014). Politicizing Europe in hard times: Conflicts over Europe in France in a long-term perspective, 1974–2012. Journal of European Integration, 36(3), 267–282.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Inthorn, S. (2006). What does it mean to be an EU citizen? How news media construct civic and cultural concepts of Europe. Westminster Papers in Communication and Culture, 3(3), 71–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ioannou, D., Leblond, P., & Niemann, A. (2015). European integration and the crisis: Practice and theory. Journal of European Public Policy, 22(2), 155–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Isernia, P., Fiket, I., Serricchio, F., & Westle, B. (2012). But still it does not move: Functional and identity-based determinants of European identity. In D. Sanders, P. C. Magalhaes, & G. Toka (Eds.), Citizens and the European polity: Mass attitudes towards the European and national polities (pp. 110–139). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kaina, V. (2009). Wir in Europa: kollektive Identität und Demokratie in der Europäischen Union. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Kam, C. D., & Kinder, D. R. (2007). Terror and ethnocentrism: Foundations of American support for the war on terrorism. Journal of Politics, 69(2), 320–338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Katsourides, Y. (2014). Negative images of Europe in an era of crisis: The media and public opinion in cyprus. Journal of Contemporary European Studies, 24(1), 61–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kinder, D. R. (2003). Belief systems after converse. In M. MacKuen & G. Rabinowitz (Eds.), Electoral democracy. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinder, D. R. (2006). Belief systems today. Critical Review, 18(1-3), 197–216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kinder, D. R., & Kam, C. D. (2010). Us against them: Ethnocentric foundations of American opinion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koopmans, R., & Erbe, J. (2004). Towards a European public sphere? Innovation: The European Journal of Social Science Research, 17(2), 97–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koopmans, R., & Pfetsch, B. (2006). Obstacles or motors of Europeanization? German media and the transnationalization of public debate. Communications, 31(2), 115–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koopmans, R., Erbe, J., & Meyer, M. F. (2010). The Europeanization of public spheres. Comparisons across issues, time, and countries. In R. Koopmans & P. Statham (Eds.), The making of a European public sphere. Media discourse and political contention (pp. 63–96). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kriesi, H. (2005). Direct democratic choice: The Swiss experience. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kriesi, H. (2007). The role of European integration in national election campaigns. European Union Politics, 8(1), 83–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kriesi, H. (2010). Restructuration of partisan politics and the emergence of a new cleavage based on values. West European Politics, 33(3), 673–685.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kriesi, H. (Ed.). (2012). Political communication in direct democratic campaigns: Enlightening or manipulating? Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kriesi, H., Grande, E., Lachat, R., Dolezal, M., Bornschier, S., & Frey, T. (2006). Globalization and the transformation of the national political space: Six European countries compared. European Journal of Political Research, 45(6), 921–956.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krosnick, J. A., & Brannon, L. A. (1993). The impact of the Gulf War on the ingredients of presidential evaluations: Multidimensional effects of political involvement. American Political Science Review, 87(04), 963–975.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn, T. (2011). Individual transnationalism, globalisation and euroscepticism: An empirical test of Deutsch’s transactionalist theory. European Journal of Political Research, 50(6), 811–837.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn, T. (2012). Why educational exchange programmes miss their mark: Cross-border mobility, education and European identity. JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies, 50(6), 994–1010.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn, T. (2015). Experiencing European integration: Individual transnationalism and public orientations towards European integration. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Lequesne, C. (2012). Old versus new. In E. Jones, A. Menon, & S. Weatherill (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of the European Union (pp. 267–277). Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leschke, J., Theodoropoulou, S., & Watt, A. (2012). How do economic governance reforms and austerity measures affect inclusive growth as formulated in the Europe 2020 Strategy? In S. Lehndorff (Ed.), A triumph of failed ideas: European models of capitalism in the crisis. European Trade Union Institute: Brussels.

    Google Scholar 

  • Light, D., & Young, C. (2009). European Union enlargement, post-accession migration and imaginative geographies of the ‘New Europe’: media discourses in Romania and the United Kingdom. Journal of Cultural Geography, 26(3), 281–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luskin, R. C. (1987). Measuring political sophistication. American Journal of Political Science, 31(4), 856–899.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luskin, R. C. (1990). Explaining political sophistication. Political Behavior, 12(4), 331–361.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maier, J., & Bathelt, S. (2013). Unbekanntes Europa? Eine vergleichende Analyse zu Verteilung und Determinanten von Kenntnissen über die Europäische Union. In S. I. Keil & S. I. Thaidigsmann (Eds.), Zivile Bürgergesellschaft und Demokratie (pp. 413–432). Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Maier, M., Adam, S., & Maier, J. (2012). The impact of identity and economic cues on citizens’ EU support: An experimental study on the effects of party communication in the run-up to the 2009 European Parliament elections. European Union Politics, 13(4), 580–603.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marks, G., & Wilson, C. J. (2000). The past in the present: A cleavage theory of party response to European integration. British Journal of Political Science, 30(03), 433–459.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marks, G., Wilson, C. J., & Ray, L. (2002). National political parties and European integration. American Journal of Political Science, 46(3), 585–594.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marks, G., Hooghe, L., Nelson, M., & Edwards, E. (2006). Party competition and European integration in the East and West – Different structure, same causality. Comparative Political Studies, 39(2), 155–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marks, G., Hooghe, L., Steenbergen, M. R., & Bakker, R. (2007). Crossvalidating data on party positioning on European integration. Electoral Studies, 26(1), 23–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mau, S., & Mewes, J. (2012). Horizontal Europeanisation in contextual perspective: What drives cross-border activities within the European Union? European Societies, 14(1), 7–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mau, S., & Mewes, J. (2013). Horizontal Europeanization and identification with Europe. In R. McMahon (Ed.), Post-identity? Culture and European integration (pp. 176–190). Abingdon: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mau, S., Mewes, J., & Zimmermann, A. (2008). Cosmopolitan attitudes through transnational social practices? Global Networks, 8(1), 1–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mazzoni, M., & Barbieri, G. (2014). Grasshoppers against ants or malfunctions of capitalism? The representation of the European economic crisis in the main Italian newspapers. Perspectives on European Politics and Society, 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGuire, W. J. (1985). Attitudes and attitude change. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology: Special fields and applications. New York: Random House.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLaren, L. M. (2002). Public support for the European Union: Cost/benefit analysis or perceived cultural threat? Journal of Politics, 64(2), 551–566.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meijers, M. (2013). The Euro-crisis as a catalyst of the Europeanization of public spheres? A crosstemporal study of the Netherlands and Germany. LSE ‘Europe in Question’ Discussion Paper Series, (62).

    Google Scholar 

  • Miklin, E. (2014). From ‘sleeping giant’ to left–right politicization? National party competition on the EU and the Euro crisis. Journal of Common Market Studies, 52(6), 1199–1206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Netjes, C. E., & Binnema, H. A. (2007). The salience of the European integration issue: Three data sources compared. Electoral Studies, 26(1), 39–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Netjes, C. E., & Edwards, E. (2005). Taking Europe to its extremes. Examining cueing effects of right-wing populist parties on public opinion regarding European integration. Berlin: Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung (WZB).

    Google Scholar 

  • Nugent, N. (Ed.). (2004a). European Union enlargement. Basingstoke: Palgrave McMillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nugent, N. (2004b). The unfolding of the 10+2 enlargement round. In N. Nugent (Ed.), European Union enlargement (pp. 34–69). Basingstoke: Palgrave McMillan.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • O’Brennan, J. (2006). The Eastern enlargement of the European Union. Abingdon: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pennings, P. (2006). An empirical analysis of the Europeanization of national party manifestos, 1960–2003. European Union Politics, 7(2), 257–270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peter, J., & de Vreese, C. H. (2004). In search of Europe: A cross-national comparative study of the European Union in national television news. The Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 9(4), 3–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peter, J., Semetko, H. A., & de Vreese, C. H. (2003). EU politics on television news: A cross-national comparative study. European Union Politics, 4(3), 305–327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phinnemore, D. (2004). Institutions and governance. In N. Nugent (Ed.), European Union enlargement (pp. 118–131). Basingstoke: Palgrave McMillan.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Picard, R. G. (Ed.). (2015). The Euro crisis in the media: Journalistic coverage of economic crisis and European institutions. London: I.B.Tauris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Polletta, F., & Ho, K. M. (2006). Frames and their consequences. In R. E. Goodin & C. Tilly (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of contextual political analysis (pp. 187–209). Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Puetter, U. (2012). Europe's deliberative intergovernmentalism: The role of the Council and European Council in EU economic governance. Journal of European Public Policy, 19(2), 161–178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Puntscher Riekmann, S., & Wydra, D. (2013). Representation in the European State of emergency: Parliaments against governments? Journal of European Integration, 35(5), 565–582.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rauh, C., & Zürn, M. (2014). Zur Politisierung der EU in der Krise. In M. Heidenreich (Ed.), Krise der europäischen Vergesellschaftung? Soziologische Perspektiven (pp. 121–145). Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ray, L. (1999). Measuring party orientations towards European integration: Results from an expert survey. European Journal of Political Research, 36, 283–306.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ray, L. (2003). When parties matter: The conditional influence of party positions on voter opinions about European integration. Journal of Politics, 65(4), 978–994.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ray, L. (2007). Validity of measured party positions on European integration: Assumptions, approaches, and a comparison of alternative measures. Electoral Studies, 26(1), 11–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Recchi, E. (2008). Cross-state mobility in the EU. European Societies, 10(2), 197–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Recchi, E. (2012). The Europeanisation of everyday life: Cross-border practices and transnational identifications among EU and third-country citizens. Transnational practices and european identity: From theoretical to policy issues. EUCROSS Working Paper (p. 12).

    Google Scholar 

  • Risse, T. (2001). A European identity? Europeanization and the evolution of the nation-state. In M. G. Cowles, J. A. Caporaso, & T. Risse (Eds.), Transforming Europe: Europeanization and domestic change (pp. 198–216). Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Risse, T. (2010). A community of Europeans? Transnational identities and public spheres. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Risse, T. (2015). European public spheres, the politicization of EU affairs, and its consequences. In T. Risse (Ed.), European public spheres: Politics is back (pp. 141–164). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Risse, T., & Engelmann-Martin, D. (2002). Identity politics and European integration: The case of Germany. In A. Pagden (Ed.), The idea of Europe. From antiquity to the European Union (pp. 287–316). Cambridge/New York: Cambridge Unversity Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Rohrschneider, R., & Whitefield, S. (2010). Consistent choice sets? The stances of political parties towards European integration in ten Central East European democracies, 2003-2007. Journal of European Public Policy, 17(1), 55–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roth, F., Nowak-Lehmann, F., & Otter, T. (2013). Crisis and trust in the national and European governmental institutions. In B. De Witte, A. Heritier, & A. H. Trechsel (Eds.), The Euro crisis and the state of European democracy: Contributions from the 2012 EUDO dissemination conference (pp. 392–407). Florence: European University Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roth, F., Gros, D., & Nowak-Lehmann D, F. (2014). Crisis and citizens’ trust in the European Central Bank – Panel data evidence for the Euro Area, 1999–2012. Journal of European Integration, 36(3), 303-320.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rother, N., & Nebe, T. M. (2009). More mobile, more European? Free movement and EU identity. In E. Recchi & A. Favell (Eds.), Pioneers of European integration: Citizenship and mobility in the EU (pp. 120–155). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scharkow, M., & Vogelgesang, J. (2010). Effects of domestic media use on European integration. Communications, 35(1), 73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schlenker, A. (2013). Cosmopolitan Europeans or partisans of fortress Europe? Supranational identity patterns in the EU. Global Society, 27(1), 25–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schlenker-Fischer, A. (2009). Demokratische Gemeinschaft trotz ethnischer Differenz. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Schlenker-Fischer, A. (2011). Multiple identities and attitudes toward cultural diversity in Europe: A conceptual and empirical analysis. In D. Fuchs & H.-D. Klingemann (Eds.), Cultural diversity, European identity and the legitimacy of the EU (pp. 86–122). Cheltenham/Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, V. A. (2014). Speaking to the markets or to the people? A discursive institutionalist analysis of the EU’s sovereign debt crisis. The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 16(1), 188–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schuck, A. R. T., Xezonakis, G., Elenbaas, M., Banducci, S. A., & de Vreese, C. H. (2011). Party contestation and Europe on the news agenda: The 2009 European Parliamentary Elections. Electoral Studies, 30(1), 41–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Semetko, H. A., van der Brug, W., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2003). The influence of political events on attitudes towards the European Union. British Journal of Political Science, 33(04), 621–634.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Serricchio, F., Tsakatika, M., & Quaglia, L. (2013). Euroscepticism and the global financial crisis. Journal of Common Market Studies, 51(1), 51–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sigalas, E. (2010). Cross-border mobility and European identity: The effectiveness of intergroup contact during the ERASMUS year abroad. European Union Politics, 11(2), 241–265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singer, M. M. (2013). The global economic crisis and domestic political agendas. Electoral Studies, 32(3), 404–410.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slothuus, R., & de Vreese, C. H. (2010). Political parties, motivated reasoning, and issue framing effects. Journal of Politics, 72(3), 630–645.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sniderman, P. M., Brody, R. A., & Tetlock, P. E. (1991). Reasoning and choice: Explorations in political psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Spoon, J.-J. (2012). How salient is Europe? An analysis of European election manifestos, 1979–2004. European Union Politics, 13(4), 558–579.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steenbergen, M. R., & Scott, D. J. (2004). Contesting Europe? The salience of European integration as a party issue. In G. Marks & M. R. Steenbergen (Eds.), European integration and political conflict (pp. 165–192). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Steenbergen, M. R., Edwards, E. E., & de Vries, C. E. (2007). Who’s cueing whom?: Mass-elite linkages and the future of European integration. European Union Politics, 8(1), 13–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stoll, H. (2010). Elite-level conflict salience and dimensionality in western Europe: Concepts and empirical findings. West European Politics, 33(3), 445–473.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Theodoropoulou, S., & Watt, A. (2011). Withdrawal symptoms: An assessment of the austerity packages in Europe. ETUI Working Papers, (WP 2011.02).

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, J. C. (1987). A self-categorization theory. In J. C. Turner (Ed.), Rediscovering the social group. A self-categorization theory (pp. 42–67). Oxford: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Valentino, N. A., & Nardis, Y. (2013). Political communication: Form and consequence of the information environment. In L. Huddy, D. O. Sears, & J. S. Levy (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of political psychology (2nd ed., pp. 557–590). Oxford/New York Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Deth, J. (1991). Politicization and political interest. In K. H. Reif & R. Inglehart (Eds.), Eurobarometer: The dynamics of European public opinion: Essays in honour of Jacques-René Rabier (pp. 201–213). London: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Deth, J., & Elff, M. (2004). Politicisation, economic development and political interest in Europe. European Journal of Political Research, 43(3), 477–508.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Noije, L. (2010). The European paradox: A communication deficit as long as European integration steals the headlines. European Journal of Communication, 25(3), 259–272.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vliegenthart, R., Schuck, A. R. T., Boomgaarden, H. G., & de Vreese, C. H. (2008). News coverage and support for European integration, 1990–2006. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 20(4), 415–439.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wendler, F. (2014). End of consensus? The European leadership discourse of the second merkel government during the Eurozone crisis and its contestation in debates of the Bundestag (2009−13). German Politics, 23(4), 446–459.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Westle, B. (2003). Europäische Identifikation im Spannungsfeld regionaler und nationaler Identitäten. Theoretische Überlegungen und empirische Befunde. Politische Vierteljahresschrift, 44(4), 453–482.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Westle, B. (2012). European identity as a contrast or an extension of national identity? In S. Salzborn, E. Davidov, & J. Reinecke (Eds.), Methods, theories, and empirical applications in the social sciences: Festschrift for Peter Schmidt (pp. 249–254). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Westle, B., & Johann, D. (2010). Das Wissen der Europäer/innen über die Europäische Union. In T. Faas, K. Arzheimer, & S. Roßteutscher (Eds.), Information – Wahrnehmung – Emotion (pp. 353–374). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Whitefield, S., Vachudova, M. A., Steenbergen, M. R., Rohrschneider, R., Marks, G., Loveless, M. P., et al. (2007). Do expert surveys produce consistent estimates of party stances on European integration? Comparing expert surveys in the difficult case of Central and Eastern Europe. Electoral Studies, 26(1), 50–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zaller, J. (1990). Political awareness, elite opinion leadership, and the mass survey response. Social Cognition, 8(1), 125–153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zaller, J. (1992). The nature and origins of mass opinion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. European Central Bank, Frankfurt am Main, Germany

    Stephanie Bergbauer

Authors
  1. Stephanie Bergbauer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Bergbauer, S. (2018). The Sources of European Identity: A Theoretical Model for Explaining Individual Identification with Europe. In: Explaining European Identity Formation. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67708-8_3

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation