Abstract
Candida species comprehend a wide group of opportunistic pathogens that usually form a part of the microbiota on human linings. Under specific conditions such as immune depression, tissue invasion and infection may occur. Candida infections are ranked as the sixth most common cause of nosocomial infections according to studies by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, thus constituting a serious public health problem. Candida albicans has been the most studied member of this species; nevertheless, non-albicans species have risen as emergent pathogens in many regions across the globe. This text presents an outlook of Candida and its infections, including the historical aspects of the fungus, epidemiology and clinical manifestations of the infection, diagnostic techniques as well as treatment guidelines.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Sharma Y, Chumber S, Kaur M (2017) Studying the prevalence, species distribution, and detection of in vitro production of phospholipase from Candida isolated from cases of invasive candidiasis. J Global Infect Dis 9(1):8–11
Sheevani, Sharma P, Aggarwal A (2013) Nosocomial Candida infection in a rural tertiary care hospital. J Clin Diagn Res 7(2):405–406
Pfaller MA, Diekema DJ (2007 Jan) Epidemiology of invasive candidiasis: a persistent public health problem. Clin Microbiol Rev 20(1):133–163
Leff S (1956) From witchcraft to world health. Lawrence and Wishart, London
Ship JA (1996) Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. An update. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 81(2):141–147
Rosén von Rosenstein N (1764) Underrälttelser om barn-sjukdomar och deras botemedel. Kongl. Wet. Acad., Stockholm
Langenbeck B (1839) Auffindung von Pilzen auf der Schleimhaut der Speiseröhre einer Typhus-Leiche. Neue Notizen aus dem Gebiete der Natur-und Heilkunde 12(252): columns 145–147
DIa G (2014) Tapeworms, lice and prions : a compendium of unpleasant infections. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Robin CP (1853) Hlstotre Naturelle des vegdtaux parasites qut crolssent Sur l’homme et sur les animaux vivants, Paris
Barnett JA (2008) A history of research on yeasts 12: medical yeasts part 1, Candida albicans. Yeast 25(6):385–417
Laurent E (1889) Observations sur le champignon du muguet. Bulletin de la Societé Belge de Microscopie 16:14–18
Zopf WF (1890) Die Pilze in morphologischer, physiologischer, biologischer und systematischer beziehung. Encyklopaedie der Naturwissenschaften. The University of Michigan, E. Trewendt
Mello FLG (1918) Arq Hig Pat Exot:207–316
Brownlie & Shattock (1920) J Laryng Rhin Otol 34:425–431
Berkhout CM (1923) De Schimmelgeslachten Monilia, Oidium, Oospora en Torula (Thesis). Rijksuniversiteit te Utrecht
Ota M (1928) Champignons parasites de l’homme. VI (Études morphologiques et systématiques) [In Japanese]. Jpn J Dermatol Urol 28(16–23):381–424
Dekker NM (1931) Endomycopsis albicans (Vuill.) Verh. K. Akad. Wet., tweede sect 28:231
Stelling-Dekker NM (1931) Die sporogenen Hefen. Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te A, editor, Amsterdam
Benham RW (1931) Certain Monilias parasitic on man. Their identification by morphology and by agglutination. J Infect Dis 49:183–215
Benham RW (1932) Monilias, yeasts, and cryptococci: their pathogenicity, classification, and identification. Am J Public Health Nations Health 22(5):502–504
Dodge CW (1935) Medical mycology. Fungous diseases of men and other mammals. St. Louis, The C.V. Mosby Company
Langeron M, Guerra P (1938) Nouvelles recherches de zymologie medicare. Ann Parasitol Hum Comp 16(5):429–476
Nickerson WJ (1953) Reduction of inorganic substances by yeasts. I. Extracellular reduction of sulfite by species of Candida. J Infect Dis 93(1):43–56
Nickerson WJ (1954) An enzymatic locus participating in cellular division of a yeast. J Gen Physiol 37(4):483–494
Meinhof W, Schirren C (2014) Hans Rieth, 1914-1994: to commemorate the occasion of his 100th birthday. Hautarzt 65(11):998–1003. Hans Rieth, 1914-1994: Zum Gedenken anlasslich seines 100. Geburtstages
Slutsky B, Buffo J, Soll DR (1985) High-frequency switching of colony morphology in Candida albicans. Science 230(4726):666–669
Chibana H, Magee BB, Grindle S, Ran Y, Scherer S, Magee PT (1998) A physical map of chromosome 7 of Candida albicans. Genetics 149(4):1739–1752
Hull CM, Johnson AD (1999) Identification of a mating type-like locus in the asexual pathogenic yeast Candida albicans. Science 285(5431):1271–1275
Chibana H, Beckerman JL, Magee PT (2000) Fine-resolution physical mapping of genomic diversity in Candida albicans. Genome Res 10(12):1865–1877
Kandasamy R, Vediyappan G, Chaffin WL (2000) Evidence for the presence of pir-like proteins in Candida albicans. FEMS Microbiol Lett 186(2):239–243
Fidel PL Jr, Cutright J, Steele C (2000) Effects of reproductive hormones on experimental vaginal candidiasis. Infect Immun 68(2):651–657
Anderson JB, Wickens C, Khan M, Cowen LE, Federspiel N, Jones T et al (2001) Infrequent genetic exchange and recombination in the mitochondrial genome of Candida albicans. J Bacteriol 183(3):865–872
Jones T, Federspiel NA, Chibana H, Dungan J, Kalman S, Magee BB et al (2004) The diploid genome sequence of Candida albicans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101(19):7329–7334
de Groot PW, de Boer AD, Cunningham J, Dekker HL, de Jong L, Hellingwerf KJ et al (2004) Proteomic analysis of Candida albicans cell walls reveals covalently bound carbohydrate-active enzymes and adhesins. Eukaryot Cell 3(4):955–965
Chibana H, Oka N, Nakayama H, Aoyama T, Magee BB, Magee PT et al (2005) Sequence finishing and gene mapping for Candida albicans chromosome 7 and syntenic analysis against the Saccharomyces cerevisiae genome. Genetics 170(4):1525–1537
Thomas DP, Bachmann SP, Lopez-Ribot JL (2006) Proteomics for the analysis of the Candida albicans biofilm lifestyle. Proteomics 6(21):5795–5804
van het Hoog M, Rast TJ, Martchenko M, Grindle S, Dignard D, Hogues H et al (2007) Assembly of the Candida albicans genome into sixteen supercontigs aligned on the eight chromosomes. Genome Biol 8(4):R52
Oliveira MA, Carvalho LP, Gomes Mde S, Bacellar O, Barros TF, Carvalho EM (2007) Microbiological and immunological features of oral candidiasis. Microbiol Immunol 51(8):713–719
Yeater KM, Chandra J, Cheng G, Mukherjee PK, Zhao X, Rodriguez-Zas SL et al (2007) Temporal analysis of Candida albicans gene expression during biofilm development. Microbiology 153(Pt 8):2373–2385
Butler G, Rasmussen MD, Lin MF, Santos MAS, Sakthikumar S, Munro CA et al (2009) Evolution of pathogenicity and sexual reproduction in eight Candida genomes. Nature 459(7247):657–662
Martinez-Gomariz M, Perumal P, Mekala S, Nombela C, Chaffin WL, Gil C (2009 Apr) Proteomic analysis of cytoplasmic and surface proteins from yeast cells, hyphae, and biofilms of Candida albicans. Proteomics 9(8):2230–2252
Nicholls S, MacCallum DM, Kaffarnik FA, Selway L, Peck SC, Brown AJ (2011) Activation of the heat shock transcription factor Hsf1 is essential for the full virulence of the fungal pathogen Candida albicans. Fungal Genet Biol 48(3):297–305
Muzzey D, Schwartz K, Weissman JS, Sherlock G (2013) Assembly of a phased diploid Candida albicans genome facilitates allele-specific measurements and provides a simple model for repeat and indel structure. Genome Biol 14(9):R97
Bartelli TF, Ferreira RC, Colombo AL, Briones MR (2013) Intraspecific comparative genomics of Candida albicans mitochondria reveals non-coding regions under neutral evolution. Infect Genet Evol 14:302–312
Maiti P, Ghorai P, Ghosh S, Kamthan M, Tyagi RK, Datta A (2015) Mapping of functional domains and characterization of the transcription factor Cph1 that mediate morphogenesis in Candida albicans. Fungal Genet Biol 83:45–57
Rajendran R, May A, Sherry L, Kean R, Williams C, Jones BL et al (2016) Integrating Candida albicans metabolism with biofilm heterogeneity by transcriptome mapping. Sci Rep 6:35436
Leach MD, Farrer RA, Tan K, Miao Z, Walker LA, Cuomo CA et al (2016) Hsf1 and Hsp90 orchestrate temperature-dependent global transcriptional remodelling and chromatin architecture in Candida albicans. Nat Commun 7:11704
Cevik R, Tekin R, Gem M (2016) Candida arthritis in a patient diagnosed with spondyloarthritis. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 49(6):793–795
Zhou PR, Hua H, Liu XS (2017) Quantity of Candida colonies in saliva: a diagnostic evaluation for oral candidiasis. Chin J Dent Res 20(1):27–32
Spampinato C, Leonardi D (2013) Candida infections, causes, targets, and resistance mechanisms: traditional and alternative antifungal agents. Biomed Res Int 2013:204237
Gow NAR, van de Veerdonk FL, Brown AJP, Netea MG (2011) Candida albicans morphogenesis and host defence: discriminating invasion from colonization. Nat Rev Microbiol 10(2):112–122
Odds FC (2008) Evolution of pathogenic Candida species. Evolutionary biology of bacterial and fungal pathogens. American Society of Microbiology
Pemán J, Cantón E, Quindós G, Eraso E, Alcoba J, Guinea J et al (2012) Epidemiology, species distribution and in vitro antifungal susceptibility of fungaemia in a Spanish multicentre prospective survey. J Antimicrob Chemother 67(5):1181–1187
Ruiz Gaitan AC, Moret A, Lopez Hontangas JL, Molina JM, Aleixandre Lopez AI, Cabezas AH et al (2017) Nosocomial fungemia by Candida auris: first four reported cases in continental Europe. Rev Iberoam Micol 34(1):23–27
Hazen KC (1995) New and emerging yeast pathogens. Clin Microbiol Rev 8(4):462–478
BA MM, Coleman DC (2014) Molecular epidemiology, phylogeny and evolution of Candida albicans. Infect Genet Evol 21:166–178
Fidel PL, Vazquez JA, Sobel JD (1999) Candida glabrata: review of epidemiology, pathogenesis, and clinical disease with comparison to C. albicans. Clin Microbiol Rev 12(1):80–96
Trofa D, Gácser A, Nosanchuk JD (2008) Candida parapsilosis, an emerging fungal pathogen. Clin Microbiol Rev 21(4):606–625
Almirante B, Rodriguez D, Cuenca-Estrella M, Almela M, Sanchez F, Ayats J et al (2006) Epidemiology, risk factors, and prognosis of Candida parapsilosis bloodstream infections: case-control population-based surveillance study of patients in Barcelona, Spain, from 2002 to 2003. J Clin Microbiol 44(5):1681–1685
de Toro M, Torres MJ, Maite R, Aznar J (2011) Characterization of Candida parapsilosis complex isolates. Clin Microbiol Infect 17(3):418–424
Álvarez-Lerma F, Nolla-Salas J, León C, Palomar M, Jordá R, Carrasco N et al (2003) Candiduria in critically ill patients admitted to intensive care medical units. Intensive Care Med 29(7):1069–1076
Binelli CA, Moretti ML, Assis RS, Sauaia N, Menezes PR, Ribeiro E et al (2006) Investigation of the possible association between nosocomial candiduria and candidaemia. Clin Microbiol Infect 12(6):538–543
Colombo AL, Guimarães T, LRBF S, LPDA M, AKB C, Rady P et al (2007) Prospective Observational Study of Candidemia in São Paulo, Brazil: incidence rate, epidemiology, and predictors of mortality. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 28(5):570–576
Ann Chai LY, Denning DW, Warn P (2010) Candida tropicalis in human disease. Crit Rev Microbiol 36(4):282–298
Suzuki T, Miyamae Y, Ishida I (1991) Variation of colony morphology and chromosomal rearrangement in Candida tropicalis pK233. Microbiology 137(1):161–167
Martin MV (1979) Germ-tube formation by oral strains of Candida tropicalis. J Med Microbiol 12(2):187–194
Doi M, Homma M, Chindamporn A, Tanaka K (1992) Estimation of chromosome number and size by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) in medically important Candida species. Microbiology 138(10):2243–2251
Pfaller MA, Andes DR, Diekema DJ, Horn DL, Reboli AC, Rotstein C et al (2014) Epidemiology and outcomes of invasive candidiasis due to non-albicans species of Candida in 2,496 patients: data from the prospective antifungal therapy (PATH) registry 2004–2008. PLoS One 9(7):e101510
Presterl E, Daxböck F, Graninger W, Willinger B (2007) Changing pattern of candidaemia 2001–2006 and use of antifungal therapy at the University Hospital of Vienna, Austria. Clin Microbiol Infect 13(11):1072–1076
Pfaller MA, Diekema DJ (2010) Epidemiology of invasive mycoses in North America. Crit Rev Microbiol 36(1):1–53
Li XS, Reddy MS, Baev D, Edgerton M (2003) Candida albicans Ssa1/2p is the cell envelope binding protein for human salivary histatin 5. J Biol Chem 278(31):28553–28561
Baddley JW, Patel M, Bhavnani SM, Moser SA, Andes DR (2008) Association of fluconazole pharmacodynamics with mortality in patients with candidemia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 52(9):3022–3028
Kaufmann CS, Merz WG (1989) Electrophoretic karyotypes of Torulopsis glabrata. J Clin Microbiol 27(10):2165–2168
DiazGranados CA, Martinez A, Deaza C, Valderrama S (2008) An outbreak of Candida spp. bloodstream infection in a tertiary care center in Bogotá, Colombia. Braz J Infect Dis 12:390–394
Strollo S, Lionakis MS, Adjemian J, Steiner CA, Prevots DR (2017) Epidemiology of hospitalizations associated with invasive candidiasis, United States, 2002–2012. Emerg Infect Dis J 23(1):7
Tortorano AM, Peman J, Bernhardt H, Klingspor L, Kibbler CC, Faure O et al (2004) Epidemiology of candidaemia in Europe: results of 28-month European Confederation of Medical Mycology (ECMM) hospital-based surveillance study. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 23(4):317–322
Hasan F, Xess I, Wang X, Jain N, Fries BC (2009) Biofilm formation in clinical Candida isolates and its association with virulence. Microbes Infect 11(8–9):753–761
Horn DL, Neofytos D, Anaissie EJ, Fishman JA, Steinbach WJ, Olyaei AJ et al (2009) Epidemiology and outcomes of candidemia in 2019 patients: data from the prospective antifungal therapy alliance registry. Clin Infect Dis 48(12):1695–1703
Sardi JCO, Scorzoni L, Bernardi T, Fusco-Almeida AM, Mendes Giannini MJS (2013) Candida species: current epidemiology, pathogenicity, biofilm formation, natural antifungal products and new therapeutic options. J Med Microbiol 62(1):10–24
Richardson M, Lass-Flörl C (2008) Changing epidemiology of systemic fungal infections. Clin Microbiol Infect 14:5–24
Lass-Flörl C (2009) The changing face of epidemiology of invasive fungal disease in Europe. Mycoses 52(3):197–205
Pappas PG. Invasive candidiasis. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2006;20(3):485–506
Weems JJ Jr (1992) Candida parapsilosis: epidemiology, pathogenicity, clinical manifestations, and antimicrobial susceptibility. Clin Infect Dis 14(3):756–766
Krcmery V, Barnes AJ (2002) Non-albicans Candida spp. causing fungaemia: pathogenicity and antifungal resistance. J Hosp Infect 50(4):243–260
Canton E, Peman J, Quindos G, Eraso E, Miranda-Zapico I, Alvarez M et al (2011) Prospective multicenter study of the epidemiology, molecular identification, and antifungal susceptibility of Candida parapsilosis, Candida orthopsilosis, and Candida metapsilosis isolated from patients with candidemia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 55(12):5590–5596
Pfaller MA, Boyken L, Hollis RJ, Messer SA, Tendolkar S, Diekema DJ (2006) Global surveillance of in vitro activity of micafungin against Candida: a comparison with caspofungin by CLSI-recommended methods. J Clin Microbiol 44(10):3533–3538
Pfaller MA, Boyken L, Hollis RJ, Messer SA, Tendolkar S, Diekema DJ. In vitro susceptibilities of Candida spp. to caspofungin: four years of global surveillance. J Clin Microbiol. 2006;44(3):760–763
Wingard JR (1995) Importance of Candida species other than C. albicans as pathogens in oncology patients. Clin Infect Dis 20(1):115–125
Kao AS, Brandt ME, Pruitt WR, Conn LA, Perkins BA, Stephens DS et al (1999) The epidemiology of candidemia in two United States cities: results of a population-based active surveillance. Clin Infect Dis 29(5):1164–1170
Ortega M, Marco F, Soriano A, Almela M, Martínez JA, López J et al (2011) Candida species bloodstream infection: epidemiology and outcome in a single institution from 1991 to 2008. J Hosp Infect 77(2):157–161
Branchini ML, Pfaller MA, Rhine-Chalberg J, Frempong T, Isenberg HD (1994) Genotypic variation and slime production among blood and catheter isolates of Candida parapsilosis. J Clin Microbiol 32(2):452–456
Fusek M, Smith EA, Monod M, Foundling SI (1993) Candida parapsilosis expresses and secretes two aspartic proteinases. FEBS Lett 327(1):108–112
Merkerova M, Dostal J, Hradilek M, Pichova I, Hruskova-Heidingsfeldova O (2006) Cloning and characterization of Sapp2p, the second aspartic proteinase isoenzyme from Candida parapsilosis. FEMS Yeast Res 6(7):1018–1026
Miranda LN, van der Heijden IM, Costa SF, Sousa AP, Sienra RA, Gobara S et al (2009) Candida colonisation as a source for candidaemia. J Hosp Infect 72(1):9–16
Hobson RP (2003) The global epidemiology of invasive Candida infections – is the tide turning? J Hosp Infect 55(3):159–168. quiz 233
Brito LR, Guimaraes T, Nucci M, Rosas RC, Paula Almeida L, Da Matta DA et al (2006) Clinical and microbiological aspects of candidemia due to Candida parapsilosis in Brazilian tertiary care hospitals. Med Mycol 44(3):261–266
Kauffman CA, Vazquez JA, Sobel JD, Gallis HA, McKinsey DS, Karchmer AW et al (2000) Prospective multicenter surveillance study of funguria in hospitalized patients. The National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) Mycoses Study Group. Clin Infect Dis 30(1):14–18
Rho J, Shin JH, Song JW, Park MR, Kee SJ, Jang SJ et al (2004) Molecular investigation of two consecutive nosocomial clusters of Candida tropicalis candiduria using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. J Microbiol 42(2):80–86
Negri M, Goncalves V, Silva S, Henriques M, Azeredo J, Oliveira R (2010) Crystal violet staining to quantify Candida adhesion to epithelial cells. Br J Biomed Sci 67(3):120–125
Chakrabarti A, Sood P, Rudramurthy SM, Chen S, Kaur H, Capoor M et al (2015) Incidence, characteristics and outcome of ICU-acquired candidemia in India. Intensive Care Med 41(2):285–295
Hii I-M, Chang H-L, Lin L-C, Lee Y-L, Liu Y-M, Liu C-E et al (2015) Changing epidemiology of candidemia in a medical center in middle Taiwan. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 48(3):306–315
Hofs S, Mogavero S, Hube B (2016) Interaction of Candida albicans with host cells: virulence factors, host defense, escape strategies, and the microbiota. J Microbiol 54(3):149–169
Yang YL (2003) Virulence factors of Candida species. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 36(4):223–228
Moyes DL, Richardson JP, Naglik JR (2015) Candida albicans-epithelial interactions and pathogenicity mechanisms: scratching the surface. Virulence 6(4):338–346
Modrzewska B, Kurnatowski P (2015) Adherence of Candida sp. to host tissues and cells as one of its pathogenicity features. Ann Parasitol 61(1):3–9
Staab JF, Bahn YS, Tai CH, Cook PF, Sundstrom P (2004) Expression of transglutaminase substrate activity on Candida albicans germ tubes through a coiled, disulfide-bonded N-terminal domain of Hwp1 requires C-terminal glycosylphosphatidylinositol modification. J Biol Chem 279(39):40737–40747
Zhu W, Filler SG (2010) Interactions of Candida albicans with epithelial cells. Cell Microbiol 12(3):273–282
Calderone RA, Fonzi WA (2001) Virulence factors of Candida albicans. Trends Microbiol 9(7):327–335
Biswas S, Van Dijck P, Datta A (2007) Environmental sensing and signal transduction pathways regulating morphopathogenic determinants of Candida albicans. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 71(2):348–376
Jacobsen ID, Wilson D, Wachtler B, Brunke S, Naglik JR, Hube B (2012) Candida albicans dimorphism as a therapeutic target. Expert Rev Anti-Infect Ther 10(1):85–93
Sudbery PE (2011) Growth of Candida albicans hyphae. Nat Rev Micro 9(10):737–748
Mayer FL, Wilson D, Hube B (2013) Candida albicans pathogenicity mechanisms. Virulence 4(2):119–128
Clancy CJ, Barchiesi F, Falconi DiFrancesco L, Morris AJ, Snydman DR, Yu VL et al (2000) Clinical manifestations and molecular epidemiology of late recurrent candidemia, and implications for management. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 19(8):585–592
Tang HJ, Liu WL, Lin HL, Lai CC (2014) Clinical manifestations and prognostic factors of central line-associated candidemia. Am J Infect Control 42(11):1238–1240
Patel SK, Shah DR, Tiwari S (2015) Bioadhesive films containing fluconazole for mucocutaneous candidiasis. Indian J Pharm Sci 77(1):55–61
Khullar G, Vignesh P, Lau YL, Rudramurthy SM, Rawat A, De D et al (2017) Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 5(4):1119–1121
Puel A, Picard C, Cypowyj S, Lilic D, Abel L, Casanova JL (2010) Inborn errors of mucocutaneous immunity to Candida albicans in humans: a role for IL-17 cytokines? Curr Opin Immunol 22(4):467–474
Marazzi MG, Bondi E, Giannattasio A, Strozzi M, Savioli C (2008) Intracranial aneurysm associated with chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis. Eur J Pediatr 167(4):461–463
Rautemaa R, Hietanen J, Niissalo S, Pirinen S, Perheentupa J (2007) Oral and oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma – a complication or component of autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-ectodermal dystrophy (APECED, APS-I). Oral Oncol 43(6):607–613
Eyerich K, Eyerich S, Hiller J, Behrendt H, Traidl-Hoffmann C (2010) Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis, from bench to bedside. Eur J Dermatol 20(3):260–265
Bassetti M, Marchetti M, Chakrabarti A, Colizza S, Garnacho-Montero J, Kett DH et al (2013) A research agenda on the management of intra-abdominal candidiasis: results from a consensus of multinational experts. Intensive Care Med 39(12):2092–2106
Vergidis P, Clancy CJ, Shields RK, Park SY, Wildfeuer BN, Simmons RL et al (2016) Intra-Abdominal Candidiasis: The Importance of Early Source Control and Antifungal Treatment. PLoS One 11(4):e0153247
Bassetti M, Righi E, Ansaldi F, Merelli M, Scarparo C, Antonelli M et al (2015) A multicenter multinational study of abdominal candidiasis: epidemiology, outcomes and predictors of mortality. Intensive Care Med 41(9):1601–1610
Montravers P, Dupont H, Gauzit R, Veber B, Auboyer C, Blin P et al (2006) Candida as a risk factor for mortality in peritonitis. Crit Care Med 34(3):646–652
Murray HW, Fialk MA, Roberts RB (1976) Candida arthritis. A manifestation of disseminated candidiasis. Am J Med 60(4):587–595
Fainstein V, Gilmore C, Hopfer RL, Maksymiuk A, Bodey GP (1982) Septic arthritis due to Candida species on patients with cancer: report of five cases and review of the literature. Rev Infect Dis 4(1):78–85
Munoz-Fernandez S, Macia MA, Pantoja L, Cardenal A, Pena JM, Martin Mola E et al (1993) Osteoarticular infection in intravenous drug abusers: influence of HIV infection and differences with non drug abusers. Ann Rheum Dis 52(8):570–574
Gamaletsou MN, Rammaert B, Bueno MA, Sipsas NV, Moriyama B, Kontoyiannis DP et al (2016) Candida arthritis: analysis of 112 pediatric and adult cases. Open Forum Infect Dis 3(1):ofv207
Jones JM (1990) Laboratory diagnosis of invasive candidiasis. Clin Microbiol Rev 3(1):32–45
Pfeiffer CD, Samsa GP, Schell WA, Reller LB, Perfect JR, Alexander BD (2011) Quantitation of Candida CFU in initial positive blood cultures. J Clin Microbiol 49(8):2879–2883
Clancy CJ, Nguyen ML, Cheng S, Huang H, Fan G, Jaber RA et al (2008) Immunoglobulin G responses to a panel of Candida albicans antigens as accurate and early markers for the presence of systemic candidiasis. J Clin Microbiol 46(5):1647–1654
Martinez-Jimenez MC, Munoz P, Valerio M, Vena A, Guinea J, Bouza E (2015) Combination of Candida biomarkers in patients receiving empirical antifungal therapy in a Spanish tertiary hospital: a potential role in reducing the duration of treatment. J Antimicrob Chemother 70(11):3107–3115
Martinez-Jimenez MC, Munoz P, Valerio M, Vena A, Guinea J, Bouza E (2016) Combination of Candida biomarkers in patients receiving empirical antifungal therapy in a Spanish tertiary hospital: a potential role in reducing the duration of treatment. J Antimicrob Chemother 71(9):2679
He Z-X, Shi L-C, Ran X-Y, Li W, Wang X-L, Wang F-K (2016) Development of a lateral flow immunoassay for the rapid diagnosis of invasive candidiasis. Front Microbiol 7:1451
Borst A, Theelen B, Reinders E, Boekhout T, Fluit AC, Savelkoul PHM (2003) Use of amplified fragment length polymorphism analysis to identify medically important Candida spp., including C. dubliniensis. J Clin Microbiol 41(4):1357–1362
Coleman D, Sullivan D, Harrington B, Haynes K, Henman M, Shanley D et al (1997) Molecular and phenotypic analysis of Candida dubliniensis: a recently identified species linked with oral candidosis in HIV-infected and AIDS patients. Oral Dis 3(Suppl 1):S96–101
Elie CM, Lott TJ, Reiss E, Morrison CJ (1998) Rapid identification of Candida species with species-specific DNA probes. J Clin Microbiol 36(11):3260–3265
Ellepola AN, Hurst SF, Elie CM, Morrison CJ (2003) Rapid and unequivocal differentiation of Candida dubliniensis from other Candida species using species-specific DNA probes: comparison with phenotypic identification methods. Oral Microbiol Immunol 18(6):379–388
Graf B, Trost A, Eucker J, Gobel UB, Adam T (2004) Rapid and simple differentiation of C. dubliniensis from C. albicans. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 48(2):149–151
Joly S, Pujol C, Rysz M, Vargas K, Soll DR (1999) Development and characterization of complex DNA fingerprinting probes for the infectious yeast Candida dubliniensis. J Clin Microbiol 37(4):1035–1044
McCullough M, Ross B, Reade P (1995) Characterization of genetically distinct subgroup of Candida albicans strains isolated from oral cavities of patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J Clin Microbiol 33(3):696–700
Fatima A, Bashir G, Wani T, Jan A, Kohli A, Khan MS (2017) Molecular identification of Candida species isolated from cases of neonatal candidemia using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism in a tertiary care hospital. Indian J Pathol Microbiol 60(1):61–65
Khodadadi H, Karimi L, Jalali-Zand N, Adin H, Mirhendi H (2017) Utilization of size polymorphism in ITS1 and ITS2 regions for identification of pathogenic yeast species. J Med Microbiol 66(2):126–133
McMullan R, Metwally L, Coyle PV, Hedderwick S, McCloskey B, O'Neill HJ et al (2008) A prospective clinical trial of a real-time polymerase chain reaction assay for the diagnosis of candidemia in nonneutropenic, critically ill adults. Clin Infect Dis 46(6):890–896
Lucignano B, Ranno S, Liesenfeld O, Pizzorno B, Putignani L, Bernaschi P et al (2011) Multiplex PCR allows rapid and accurate diagnosis of bloodstream infections in newborns and children with suspected sepsis. J Clin Microbiol 49(6):2252–2258
Posteraro B, Sanguinetti M, Masucci L, Romano L, Morace G, Fadda G (2000) Reverse cross blot hybridization assay for rapid detection of PCR-amplified DNA from Candida species, Cryptococcus neoformans, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae in clinical samples. J Clin Microbiol 38(4):1609–1614
Leinberger DM, Schumacher U, Autenrieth IB, Bachmann TT (2005) Development of a DNA microarray for detection and identification of fungal pathogens involved in invasive mycoses. J Clin Microbiol 43(10):4943–4953
Baskova L, Landlinger C, Preuner S, Lion T (2007) The Pan-AC assay: a single-reaction real-time PCR test for quantitative detection of a broad range of Aspergillus and Candida species. J Med Microbiol 56(Pt 9):1167–1173
Schabereiter-Gurtner C, Selitsch B, Rotter ML, Hirschl AM, Willinger B (2007) Development of novel real-time PCR assays for detection and differentiation of eleven medically important Aspergillus and Candida species in clinical specimens. J Clin Microbiol 45(3):906–914
Nabili M, Ashrafi M, Janbabaie G, Hedayati MT, Ali-Moghaddam K, Shokohi T (2013) Quantification and optimization of Candida albicans DNA in blood samples using Real- Time PCR. Rep Biochem Mol Biol 2(1):42–47
Odds FC, Bougnoux ME, Shaw DJ, Bain JM, Davidson AD, Diogo D et al (2007) Molecular phylogenetics of Candida albicans. Eukaryot Cell 6(6):1041–1052
Odds FC (2010) Molecular phylogenetics and epidemiology of Candida albicans. Future Microbiol 5(1):67–79
Afsarian SM, Badali H, Shokohi T, Najafipour S (2015) Molecular diversity of Candida albicans isolated from immunocompromised patients, based on MLST method. Iran J Public Health 44(9):1262–1269
Marot-Leblond A, Beucher B, David S, Nail-Billaud S, Robert R (2006) Development and evaluation of a rapid latex agglutination test using a monoclonal antibody to identify Candida dubliniensis colonies. J Clin Microbiol 44(1):138–142
Karageorgopoulos DE, Vouloumanou EK, Ntziora F, Michalopoulos A, Rafailidis PI, Falagas ME (2011) β-D-Glucan assay for the diagnosis of invasive fungal infections: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 52(6):750–770
Saez-Roson A, Sevilla MJ, Moragues MD (2014) Identification of superficial Candida albicans germ tube antigens in a rabbit model of disseminated candidiasis. A proteomic approach. Int Microbiol 17(1):21–29
Yeo SF, Zhang Y, Schafer D, Campbell S, Wong B (2000) A rapid, automated enzymatic fluorometric assay for determination of D-arabinitol in serum. J Clin Microbiol 38(4):1439–1443
Pappas PG, Rex JH, Sobel JD, Filler SG, Dismukes WE, Walsh TJ et al (2004) Guidelines for treatment of candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis 38(2):161–189
Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes DR, Clancy CJ, Marr KA, Ostrosky-Zeichner L et al (2016) Clinical practice guideline for the management of candidiasis: 2016 update by the infectious diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 62(4):e1–50
Bondaryk M, Kurzątkowski W, Staniszewska M (2013) Antifungal agents commonly used in the superficial and mucosal candidiasis treatment: mode of action and resistance development. Adv Dermatol Allergol/Postȩpy Dermatol Alergol 30(5):293–301
Dias MFRG, Bernardes-Filho F, Quaresma-Santos MVP, AGDF A, Schechtman RC, Azulay DR (2013) Treatment of superficial mycoses: review – part II. An Bras Dermatol 88(6):937–944
Achkar JM, Fries BC (2010) Candida infections of the genitourinary tract. Clin Microbiol Rev 23(2):253–273
Netea MG, Joosten LA, van der Meer JW, Kullberg BJ, van de Veerdonk FL (2015) Immune defence against Candida fungal infections. Nat Rev Immunol 15(10):630–642
Netea MG, Quintin J, van der Meer JW (2011) Trained immunity: a memory for innate host defense. Cell Host Microbe 9(5):355–361
Bistoni F, Verducci G, Perito S, Vecchiarelli A, Puccetti P, Marconi P et al (1988) Immunomodulation by a low-virulence, agerminative variant of Candida albicans. Further evidence for macrophage activation as one of the effector mechanisms of nonspecific anti-infectious protection. J Med Vet Mycol 26(5):285–299
Reales-Calderon JA, Aguilera-Montilla N, Corbi AL, Molero G, Gil C (2014) Proteomic characterization of human proinflammatory M1 and anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages and their response to Candida albicans. Proteomics 14(12):1503–1518
Gantner BN, Simmons RM, Underhill DM (2005) Dectin-1 mediates macrophage recognition of Candida albicans yeast but not filaments. EMBO J 24(6):1277–1286
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Pérez-García, L.A. et al. (2017). Candida and Candidiasis. In: Mora-Montes, H., Lopes-Bezerra, L. (eds) Current Progress in Medical Mycology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64113-3_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64113-3_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-64112-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-64113-3
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)