Modification Spoiling: Bargaining and Enforcement

Reiter, Andrew G.

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-40102-7_5

Andrew G. Reiter³

Part of the book series: Rethinking Political Violence ((RPV))

306 Accesses

Abstract

Modification spoiling is effective when used by actors with strong capabilities. Powerful outside actors, who were not sufficiently consulted during the negotiation of the peace agreement, are extremely successful in forcing insiders to appease them and modify the agreement. In addition, strong insiders are successful in garnering key modifications to peace agreements that increase their benefits. Modification spoiling also has the effect of recommitting insiders to existing agreements or encouraging them to further negotiate ill-defined issues or alter overly ambitious timelines. Modification thus spoiling typically leads to a stronger peace. In some cases, however, spoiling is a signal of impending peace failure, with actors making unrealizable demands for modifications or insincere claims about implementation failures.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Chapter: USD 29.95; Price excludes VAT (USA)

eBook: USD 84.99; Price excludes VAT (USA)

Softcover Book: USD 109.99; Price excludes VAT (USA)

Hardcover Book: USD 109.99; Price excludes VAT (USA)

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Bibliography

Abdullo, Rashid G. 2001. Implementation of the 1997 General Agreement: Successes, Dilemmas and Challenges. Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives 10: 48–53. http://www.c-r.org/accord-article/implementation-1997-general-agreement-successes-dilemmas-and-challenges.
Abraham, Arthur. 2004. The Elusive Quest for Peace: From Abidjan to Lome. In Between Democracy and Terror: The Sierra Leone Civil War, ed. Ibrahim Abdullah, 199–219. Dakar, Senegal: Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa.
Google Scholar
Adebajo, Adekeye. 2002. Liberia’s Civil War: Nigeria, ECOMOG, and Regional Security in West Africa. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Google Scholar
Adhikari, Aditya. 2014. The Bullet and the Ballot Box: The Story of Nepal’s Maoist Revolution. London, UK: Verso.
Google Scholar
AFP News. 2003. Liberian Rebels Demand Resignation of Country’s New Leader. October 25.
Google Scholar
Agence France Presse. 1992. UN’s Big Five to Discuss Stalled Cambodian Peace Process. June 1.
Google Scholar
———. 2003. Liberia’s Taylor Demands Scrapping of UN Court’s War Crimes Indictment. June 12.
Google Scholar
Aguswandi, and Judith Large, eds. 2008. Reconfiguring Politics: The Indonesia—Aceh Peace Process. Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives 20. http://www.c-r.org/accord/reconfiguring-politics-indonesia-aceh-peace-process. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Al Jazeera. 2015. Ex-Afghan PM Hekmatyar Calls for ‘Real and Fair Peace.’ November 27. http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/11/afghan-pm-hekmatyar-calls-real-fair-peace-151127153233622.html. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Aminuzzaman, Salahuddin M. 2005. Bangladesh: A Critical Review of the Chittagong Hill Tract (CHT) Peace Accord. United Nations Development Programme, Working Paper No. 2: The Role of Parliaments in Conflict and & Post Conflict in Asia. https://www.academia.edu/2504753/Bangladesh_A_Critical_Review_of_the_Chittagong_Hill_Tract_CHT_Peace_Accord. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Amnesty International. 2005. Somalia: Urgent Need for Effective Human Rights Protection under the New Transitional Government. March 17. https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr52/001/2005/en/. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Apuuli, Kasaija Phillip. 2008. The Possible Deferral of the LRA Case. Journal of International Criminal Justice 6(4): 801–813.
Article Google Scholar
Asian Centre for Human Rights. 2006. Blackmail by Nepal’s Maoists. December 20. http://www.achrweb.org/Review/2006/146-06.htm. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Atkinson, Ronald R. 2009. From Uganda to the Congo and Beyond: Pursuing the Lord’s Resistance Army. International Peace Institute, December. http://www.ipinst.org/wp-content/uploads/publications/e_pub_uganda_to_congo.pdf. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Bah, Abu Bakarr. 2010. Democracy and Civil War: Citizenship and Peacemaking in Côte d’Ivoire. African Affairs 109(437): 597–615.
Article Google Scholar
BBC News. 1994a. Centrist Parties Back Peace Protocol Signed with Armenians. BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, June 9.
Google Scholar
———. 1994b. India; Rift over Bodo Autonomous Council, Leadership Crisis in Assam Factors in Barepeta Problems. BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, August 4.
Google Scholar
———. 1997a. Niger Government and Armed Opposition Sign Peace Accord in Algiers. BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, December 1.
Google Scholar
———. 1997b. Peace Committee Reaches Agreements on Reintegration of ‘Rebels.’ BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, September 8.
Google Scholar
———. 1999a. Government, Rebels Sign Cease-Fire Agreement in Lome. BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, May 20.
Google Scholar
———. 1999b. IRA Warning Overshadows Talks. July 22. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/400698.stm. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
———. 2003. Liberia Leader Defiant Till the End. August 11. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3140417.stm. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
———. 2006b. Ivorian President’s Party Says International Forces ‘Main Obstacle to Peace.’ BBC Monitoring Africa, January 18.
Google Scholar
———. 2006c. Ivorian Youths ‘Liberate’ TV Station. BBC Monitoring Africa, January 18.
Google Scholar
———. 2006d. Uganda and LRA Rebels Sign Truce. August 26. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5288776.stm. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
———. 2006e. Uganda Drops Peace Talks Deadline. September 12. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5337888.stm. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
———. 2008c. Ugandans Reach War Crimes Accord. February 19. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7252774.stm. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
———. 2008d. Uganda Sets Up War Crimes Court. May 26. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7420461.stm. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
———. 2009. Sudan ‘Allows Aid Agencies Back.’ June 12. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8096214.stm. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Beardsley, Kyle. 2011. The Mediation Dilemma. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Google Scholar
Bekoe, Dorina A. 2003. Toward a Theory of Peace Agreement Implementation: The Case of Liberia. Journal of Asia and African Studies 38(2–3): 256–294.
Article Google Scholar
Betts, Wendy. 1999. Third Party Mediation: An Obstacle to Peace in Nagorno Karabakh. SAIS Review 19(2): 161–183.
Article Google Scholar
Binningsbø, Helga Malmin, and Kendra Dupuy. 2009. Using Power-Sharing to Win a War: The Implementation of the Lomé Agreement in Sierra Leone. Africa Spectrum 44(3): 87–107.
Google Scholar
Branch, Adam. 2007. Uganda’s Civil War and the Politics of ICC Intervention. Ethics and International Affairs 21(2): 179–198.
Article Google Scholar
Bright, Dennis. 2000. Implementing the Lomé Peace Agreement. Accord: International Review of Peace Initiatives 9: 36–41. http://www.c-r.org/accord-article/implementing-lom%C3%A9-peace-agreement. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Brown, Derek. 2001. Arms Decommissioning in Northern Ireland. New York Times, July 2.
Google Scholar
Brunnbauer, Ulf. 2002. The Implementation of the Ohrid Agreement: Ethnic Macedonian Resentments. Journal of Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe 1. http://www.ecmi.de/fileadmin/downloads/publications/JEMIE/2002/nr1/Focus1-2002Brunnbauer.pdf. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Buchanan, Cate, and Joaquín Chávez. 2008. Guns and Violence in the El Salvador Peace Negotiations. Negotiating Disarmament Country Study 3, Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue. http://www.hdcentre.org/uploads/tx_news/84GunsandViolenceintheElSalvadorPeaceNegotiations.pdf. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Burke, Terence. 2009. Sudanese Ambassador: Ousted Aid Groups Were ‘Spoiling’ Country. CNN, March 6. http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/africa/03/06/sudan.un.ambassador/index.html?eref=rss_world. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Child, Jack. 1992. The Central American Peace Process, 1983–1991: Sheathing Swords, Building Confidence. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Google Scholar
Choudhury, Topu. 2015. Bodoland Movement: A Study. International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies 1(4): 78–84.
Google Scholar
Coll, Steve. 1992. Radical Afghan Rebel Chief Threatens New Assault; Hekmatyar Demands Withdrawal of Militia Force Once Aligned With Communists. Washington Post, May 3.
Google Scholar
Conciliation Resources. 2007. Chronology of Peace Talks. Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives 2: 81–86. http://www.c-r.org/accord-article/chronology-peace-talks-accord-guatemala. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Dagne, Ted. 2007. Somalia: Current Conditions and Prospects for a Lasting Peace. Congressional Research Service, March 12. https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33911.pdf. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Dak, James Gatdet. 2008. Uganda and LRA Agree on Accountability Mechanisms. Sudan Tribune, February 4. http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article25807. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Del Castillo, Graciana. 1997. The Arms-for-Land Deal in El Salvador. In Keeping the Peace: Multidimensional UN Operations in Cambodia and El Salvador, eds. Michael W. Doyle, Ian Johnstone, and Robert C. Orr, 342–365. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Chapter Google Scholar
Dongmo, Christopher. 2006. Civil War in Côte d’Ivoire: Another Perspective on the Economy and the Political Order in Africa. In The Challenge of Conflict: International Law Responds, eds. Ustinia Dolgopol and Judith Gail, 209–230. Leiden, The Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
Chapter Google Scholar
Fisher, Jonah. 2006. Uganda LRA Want Warrants Dropped. BBC News, October 9. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6032453.stm. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Flint, Julie, and Alex de Waal. 2008. Darfur: A New History of a Long War. London, UK: Zed Books.
Google Scholar
Frialde, Mike. 2008. Supreme Court Declares Ancestral Domain Deal ‘Unconstitutional.’ The Philippine Star, October 15. http://www.philstar.com/headlines/407371/supreme-court-declares-ancestral-domain-deal-unconstitutional. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Gargan, Edward A. 1992. Afghans’ Battle Lines Are Drawn As One Rebel Denounces Another. New York Times, May 1.
Google Scholar
Gasana, Jean Marie, and Henri Boshoff. 2003. Burundi: Critical Challenges to the Peace Process. African Security Analysis Programme Situation Report, September 16. https://www.issafrica.org/uploads/BURUNDISEP03.PDF. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Gberie, Lansana. 2005. A Dirty War in West Africa: The R.U.F. and the Destruction of Sierra Leone. London, UK: Hurst and Company.
Google Scholar
Gberie, Lansana, and Prosper Addo. 2004. Challenges of Peace Implementation in Côte d’Ivoire. Expert Workshop by the Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre (KAIPTC) and the Center for International Peace Operations (ZIF), Accra, Ghana, May 31–June 2, 2004. http://www.zif-berlin.org/fileadmin/uploads/analyse/dokumente/veroeffentlichungen/Cote_d_Ivoire_08_04.pdf. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
George, Sudhir Jacob. 1994. The Bodo Movement in Assam: Unrest to Accord. Asian Survey 34(10): 878–892.
Article Google Scholar
Greenhill, Kelly M., and Solomon Major. 2006. The Perils of Profiling: Civil War Spoilers and the Collapse of Intrastate Peace Accords. International Security 31(3): 7–40.
Article Google Scholar
Hazen, Jennifer M. 2013. What Rebels Want: Resources and Supply Networks in Wartime. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Google Scholar
Howard, Lise Morjé. 2008. UN Peacekeeping in Civil Wars. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Google Scholar
Huband, Mark. 1998. The Liberian Civil War. Portland, OR: Frank Cass Publishers.
Google Scholar
Huber, Konrad. 2008. Aceh’s Arduous Journey to Peace. Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives 20: 16–21. http://www.c-r.org/accord/aceh-indonesia/acehs-arduous-journey-peace. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Human Rights Watch. 1995. World Report 1995—Guatemala. http://www.hrw.org/reports/1995/WR95/AMERICAS-06.htm#P310_113406. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Hussain, Wasbir. 1994a. Ethnic Violence in India Forces 21,000 Muslims From Homes. Associated Press, July 23.
Google Scholar
———. 1994b. Indian Military Hunts For Bodo Tribesmen. Associated Press, July 25.
Google Scholar
Iklé, Fred C. 1964. How Nations Negotiate. New York, NY: Praeger.
Google Scholar
Inquirer Mindanao. 2014. Mindanaoans Hope Bangsamoro Pact Will be the ‘Real Deal’ for Peace. March 27. http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/589337/mindanaoans-hope-bangsamoro-pact-will-be-the-real-deal-for-peace. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Institute for the Study of War. 2009. Hizb-i-Islami Gulbuddin (HIG). http://www.understandingwar.org/hizb-i-islami-gulbuddin-hig. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
International Crisis Group. 2001. Sierra Leone: Managing Uncertainty. Africa Report No. 35, October 24. http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/west-africa/sierra-leone/Sierra%20Leone%20Managing%20Uncertainty.pdf. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
———. 2012. Nepal’s Constitution (II): The Expanding Political Matrix. Asia Report No. 234, August 27. http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/asia/south-asia/nepal/234-nepals-constitution-ii-the-expanding-political-matrix.aspx. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Inter Press Service. 1992. El Salvador: FMLN Declares ‘Alert’ After Attack on Ex-Guerrilla. May 22. https://groups.google.com/forum/#!topic/misc.activism.progressive/xUOfJOnByv0. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
IRIN News. 1999. DRC: IRIN Briefing on the Lusaka Peace Process. November 10. http://www.irinnews.org/fr/report/10399/drc-irin-briefing-on-the-lusaka-peace-process. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
———. 2006. UGANDA: Revised Gov’t-LRA Ceasefire Deal Signed. November 1. http://www.irinnews.org/report/61460/uganda-revised-gov-t-lra-ceasefire-deal-signed. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Kaldor, Mary, and James Vincent. 2006. Evaluation of UNDP Assistance to Conflict-Affected Countries: Case Study Sierra Leone. United Nations Development Programme Evaluation Office. http://web.undp.org/evaluation/documents/thematic/conflict/SierraLeone.pdf. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Kumar, Claire. 2012. Have Guatemala’s Rich Finally Seen the Light on Tax? The Guardian, Poverty Matters Blog, March 20. http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/poverty-matters/2012/mar/20/guatemala-rich-tax-reforms-combat-poverty. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Levitt, Jeremy I. 2012. Illegal Peace in Africa: An Inquiry into the Legality of Power Sharing with Warlords, Rebels, and Junta. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Book Google Scholar
Lezhnev, Sasha. 2005. Crafting Peace: Strategies to Deal with Warlords in Collapsing States. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
Google Scholar
Lorch, Donatella. 1992. Rebels Agree on Interim Rule for Kabul. New York Times, April 25. http://www.nytimes.com/1992/04/25/world/rebels-agree-on-interim-rule-for-kabul.html. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Lyons, Terrence. 1999. Voting for Peace: Postconflict Elections in Liberia. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
Google Scholar
MacFarquhar, Neil, and Marlise Simons. 2009. Bashir Defies War Crime Arrest Order. New York Times, March 5. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/06/world/africa/06sudan.html?_r=0. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Majtenyi, Cathy. 2004. Somali Factional Leader Returns for Peace Talks. Voice of America News Reports, September 9. http://www.voanews.com/content/a-13-a-2004-09-27-20-1-67361617/273520.html. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Mashal, Mujib. 2012. Hekmatyar’s Never-Ending Afghan War. Al Jazeera, January 28. http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/01/201212614551208744.html. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Mersiades, Michael. 2005. Peacekeeping and Legitimacy: Lessons from Cambodia and Somalia. International Peacekeeping 12(2): 205–221.
Article Google Scholar
Mutwol, Julius. 2009. Peace Agreements and Civil Wars in Africa: Insurgent Motivations, State Responses, and Third-Party Peacemaking in Liberia, Rwanda, and Sierra Leone. Amherst, NY: Cambria Press.
Google Scholar
Newman, Edward, and Oliver P. Richmond. 2006b. Obstacles to Peace Processes: Understanding Spoiling. In Challenges to Peacebuilding: Managing Spoilers During Conflict Resolution, eds. Edward Newman and Oliver P. Richmond, 1–19. New York, NY: United Nations University Press.
Google Scholar
Nossiter, Adam, Scott Sayare, and Dan Bilefsky. 2011. Leader’s Arrest in Ivory Coast Ends Standoff. New York Times, April 11. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/12/world/africa/12ivory.html?_r=0. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Nyakairu, Frank. 2008. ICC Softens on Kony’s Case. The Monitor (Kampala), March 12.
Google Scholar
Olupot, Milton. 2008. Uganda: ICC Writes to Country Over Kony, All Africa, March 17. http://allafrica.com/stories/200803180062.html. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Parker, Susan. 1992. Guatemala City Bombings Could Thwart Peace Talks, San Francisco Chronicle, May 30.
Google Scholar
Peskin, Victor. 2009. Caution and Confrontation in the International Criminal Court’s Pursuit of Accountability in Uganda and Sudan. Human Rights Quarterly 31(3): 655–691.
Article Google Scholar
Peou, Sorpong. 1997. Conflict Neutralization in the Cambodian War: From Battlefield to Ballot-Box. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press.
Google Scholar
Pezard, Stephanie and Michael Shurkin. 2015. Achieving Peace in Northern Mali: Past Agreements, Local Conflicts, and the Prospects for a Durable Settlement. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation. http://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR892.html. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Pillar, Paul. 1983. Negotiating Peace: War Termination as a Bargaining Process. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Book Google Scholar
Raghavan, Sudarsan. 2003. Ivory Coast Loyalists Decry French-Backed Peace Deal. Philadelphia Inquirer, January 27. http://articles.philly.com/2003-01-27/news/25468815_1_french-soldiers-peace-deal-ivorians. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Rashiduzzaman, M. 1998. Bangladesh’s Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord: Institutional Features and Strategic Concerns. Asian Survey 38(7): 653–670.
Article Google Scholar
Reeves, Eric. 2015. The World’s Abandonment of Darfur. Washington Post, May 15. https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/the-abandonment-of-darfur/2015/05/15/ca744c46-f8f4-11e4-9030-b4732caefe81_story.html. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
———. 2016. Lord’s Resistance Army Kidnaps Dozens in Central African Republic, January 12. http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-centralafrica-rebels-lra-idUKKCN0UQ2A920160112. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Rice, Xan. 2009. Sudanese President Bashir Charged with Darfur War Crimes. The Guardian, March 4. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/mar/04/omar-bashir-sudan-president-arrest. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Richmond, Oliver P. 1998. Devious Objectives and the Disputants Views of International Mediation: A Theoretical Framework. Journal of Peace Research 35(6): 707–722.
Article Google Scholar
Richmond, Oliver P 2006. The Linkage Between Devious Objectives and Spoiling Behavior in Peace Processes. In Challenges to Peacebuilding: Managing Spoilers During Conflict Resolution, eds. Edward Newman and Oliver P. Richmond, 59–77. New York, NY: United Nations University Press.
Google Scholar
Selva, Meera. 2004. Somali Warlord Prepares Assault on Rival as Peace Talks Falter. The Independent, September 8. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/somali-warlord-prepares-assault-on-rival-as-peace-talks-falter-543456.html. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Sengupta, Somni. 2003. Thousands Rally in Ivory Coast to Protest Peace Plan. New York Times, February 2. http://www.nytimes.com/2003/02/02/world/thousands-rally-in-ivory-coast-to-protest-peace-plan.html. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Sharma, Gopal. 2013. Chief Justice to Lead Nepal’s Interim Government to Elections. Reuters, March 13. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-nepal-politics-government-idUSBRE92C1BL20130313. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Shibuya, Eric Y. 2012. Demobilizing Irregular Forces. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
Google Scholar
Souaré, Issaka K. 2008. Moving the Ugandan Peace Process from the Dichotomy of Criminal Trials vs Amnesty. African Security Review 17(2): 105–112.
Article Google Scholar
Spencer, Denise. 1997. Demobilization and Reintegration in Central America. Bonn International Center for Conversion, Paper 08, February. https://www.bicc.de/uploads/tx_bicctools/paper8.pdf. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Stahn, Carsten. 2008. The Law and Practice of International Territorial Administration: Versailles to Iraq and Beyond. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Book Google Scholar
Standard Times. 2003. Sierra Leone: Special Court Refuses to Drop President Taylor’s Indictment. June 16.
Google Scholar
Stettenheim, Joel. 2000. The Arusha Accords and the Failure of International Intervention in Rwanda. In Words Over War: Mediation and Arbitration to Prevent Deadly Conflict, eds. Melanie C. Greenburg, John H. Barton, and Margaret E. McGuinness, 213–236. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Google Scholar
Sudan Tribune. 2009. Text: Goodwill and Confidence-Building Agreement to Resolve Darfur Conflict. February 18. http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article30199. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Suleiman, Mahmoud A. 2009. Why JEM Suspend the Doha Goodwill Agreement? Sudan Tribune, April 5. http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article30768. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Tadevosyan, Margarita. 2010. Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict: War, Humanitarian Challenge and Peacekeeping. Journal of Conflict Transformation: Caucasus Edition 3(1); 1–23.
Google Scholar
The Irish Times. 2003. A Great Day for Burundi, but Can it Last? The Country Yesterday Achieved a Peaceful Transfer of Power. May 1. http://www.irishtimes.com/news/a-great-day-for-burundi-but-can-it-last-1.357470. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Toronto Star. 1992. Guatemala City Bombs, Threats Raise Spectre of Coup Attempt. May 24.
Google Scholar
United Nations Security Council. 2003. Report of the Secretary-General on Côte d’Ivoire. S/2003/374, March 26. http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2003/374. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
United States Department of State. 1992. Country Report on Human Rights: El Salvador. http://www.ecoi.net/local_link/241825/351317_en.html. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
———. 1994. Country Report on Human Rights: Niger. http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/ERC/democracy/1993_hrp_report/93hrp_report_africa/Niger.html. Accessed 31 Jan 2016.
Weinberg, Bill. 2002. Homage to Chiapas: The New Indigenous Struggles in Mexico. London, UK: Verso.
Google Scholar

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Politics, Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Massachusetts, USA
Andrew G. Reiter

Authors

Andrew G. Reiter
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Reiter, A.G. (2016). Modification Spoiling: Bargaining and Enforcement. In: Fighting Over Peace . Rethinking Political Violence. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-40102-7_5

Download citation

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-40102-7_5
Published: 09 August 2016
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-40101-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-40102-7
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics