Abstract
Positron emission tomography (PET)/computed tomography (CT) is emerging as an important noninvasive imaging modality for assessing a wide variety of malignancies in both adults and children. However, a different approach may be needed in children than that of adults due to vulnerability of children to radiation, different types of malignancies in pediatric population comparing with adults, and special technical issues and pitfalls in pediatric PET/CT imaging. In this chapter, we discuss special considerations in pediatric PET/CT imaging and explore the use of FDG-PET in pediatric malignancies, including lymphomas, sympathetic nervous system tumors, bone and soft tissue sarcomas, neuroblastomas, and the less-common tumors, such as thyroid cancers, Wilms’ tumors, and hepatoblastomas.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Davidoff AM. Pediatric oncology. Semin Pediatr Surg. 2010;19(3):225–33.
Siegel R, Naishadham D, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2012. CA Cancer J Clin. 2012;62(1):10–29.
Steliarova-Foucher E, et al. International classification of childhood cancer, third edition. Cancer. 2005;103(7):1457–67.
Steliarova-Foucher E, et al. Trends in childhood cancer incidence in Europe, 1970–99. Lancet. 2005;365(9477):2088.
SEER NCI. The Survival, Epidemiology, and End Result Program: SEER stats fact sheet: thyroid cancer. National Cancer Institute. 2014. http://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/thyro.html.
Uslu L, et al. Value of 18F-FDG PET and PET/CT for evaluation of pediatric malignancies. J Nucl Med. 2015;56(2):274–86.
Gulyas B, Halldin C. New PET radiopharmaceuticals beyond FDG for brain tumor imaging. Q J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2012;56(2):173–90.
Persson M, et al. 68Ga-labeling and in vivo evaluation of a uPAR binding DOTA- and NODAGA-conjugated peptide for PET imaging of invasive cancers. Nucl Med Biol. 2012;39(4):560–9.
Fernandes E, et al. Positron emitting tracers in pre-clinical drug development. Curr Radiopharm. 2012;5(2):90–8.
Prezzi D, Khan A, Goh V. Perfusion CT imaging of treatment response in oncology. Eur J Radiol. 2015;84:2380–5.
Coursey CA, et al. Dual-energy multidetector CT: how does it work, what can it tell us, and when can we use it in abdominopelvic imaging? Radiographics. 2010;30(4):1037–55.
Lee YH, et al. Spectral parametric segmentation of contrast-enhanced dual-energy CT to detect bone metastasis: feasibility sensitivity study using whole-body bone scintigraphy. Acta Radiol. 2015;56(4):458–64.
Brady SL, Shulkin BL. Ultralow dose computed tomography attenuation correction for pediatric PET CT using adaptive statistical iterative reconstruction. Med Phys. 2015;42(2):558–66.
Schafer JF, et al. Simultaneous whole-body PET/MR imaging in comparison to PET/CT in pediatric oncology: initial results. Radiology. 2014;273(1):220–31.
Dunkl V, et al. The usefulness of dynamic O-(2-18F-fluoroethyl)-L-tyrosine PET in the clinical evaluation of brain tumors in children and adolescents. J Nucl Med. 2015;56(1):88–92.
Misch M, et al. (18)F-FET-PET guided surgical biopsy and resection in children and adolescence with brain tumors. Childs Nerv Syst. 2015;31(2):261–7.
Fraioli F, et al. 18F-fluoroethylcholine (18F-Cho) PET/MRI functional parameters in pediatric astrocytic brain tumors. Clin Nucl Med. 2015;40(1):e40–5.
Kurihara Y, et al. MRI of pulmonary nodules. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2014;202(3):W210–6.
Loeffelbein DJ, et al. PET-MRI fusion in head-and-neck oncology: current status and implications for hybrid PET/MRI. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2012;70(2):473–83.
Buckwalter KA, Lin C, Ford JM. Managing postoperative artifacts on computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. Semin Musculoskelet Radiol. 2011;15(4):309–19.
Hendee WR, O’Connor MK. Radiation risks of medical imaging: separating fact from fantasy. Radiology. 2012;264(2):312–21.
Dobyns BM, et al. Malignant and benign neoplasms of the thyroid in patients treated for hyperthyroidism: a report of the cooperative thyrotoxicosis therapy follow-up study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1974;38(6):976–98.
Ron E, et al. Cancer mortality following treatment for adult hyperthyroidism. Cooperative Thyrotoxicosis Therapy Follow-up Study Group. JAMA. 1998;280(4):347–55.
Fahey FH, Treves ST, Adelstein SJ. Minimizing and communicating radiation risk in pediatric nuclear medicine. J Nucl Med. 2011;52(8):1240–51.
Preston DL, et al. Studies of mortality of atomic bomb survivors. Report 13: solid cancer and noncancer disease mortality: 1950–1997. Radiat Res. 2003;160(4):381–407.
Turner HC, et al. Effect of dose rate on residual gamma-H2AX levels and frequency of micronuclei in X-irradiated mouse lymphocytes. Radiat Res. 2015;183(3):315–24.
Pouliliou S, Koukourakis MI. Gamma histone 2AX (gamma-H2AX) as a predictive tool in radiation oncology. Biomarkers. 2014;19(3):167–80.
Huda W. Radiation risks: what is to be done? AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2015;204(1):124–7.
Ng AK, et al. Secondary malignancies across the age spectrum. Semin Radiat Oncol. 2010;20(1):67–78.
Fridlich R, et al. BRCA1 and BRCA2 protect against oxidative DNA damage converted into double-strand breaks during DNA replication. DNA Repair (Amst). 2015;30:11–20.
Drooger JC, et al. Diagnostic and therapeutic ionizing radiation and the risk of a first and second primary breast cancer, with special attention for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers: a critical review of the literature. Cancer Treat Rev. 2015;41(2):187–96.
Piechowiak EI, et al. Intravenous iodinated contrast agents amplify DNA radiation damage at CT. Radiology. 2015;275:692–7. doi:10.1148/radiol.14132478.
Lacaille H, et al. Comparison of the deleterious effects of binge drinking-like alcohol exposure in adolescent and adult mice. J Neurochem. 2015;132(6):629–41.
Heydenreich J, et al. Reliability of a fully automated interpretation of gamma -H2AX foci in lymphocytes of moderately trained subjects under resting conditions. J Nutr Metab. 2014;2014:478324.
Gelfand MJ. Dose reduction in pediatric hybrid and planar imaging. Q J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2010;54(4):379–88.
Accorsi R, Karp JS, Surti S. Improved dose regimen in pediatric PET. J Nucl Med. 2010;51(2):293–300.
Lassmann M, et al. The new EANM paediatric dosage card. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2007;34(5):796–8.
Gelfand MJ, et al. Pediatric radiopharmaceutical administered doses: 2010 North American consensus guidelines. J Nucl Med. 2011;52(2):318–22.
American Academy of P, et al. Guidelines for monitoring and management of pediatric patients during and after sedation for diagnostic and therapeutic procedures: an update. Pediatrics. 2006;118(6):2587–602.
Arlachov Y, Ganatra RH. Sedation/anaesthesia in paediatric radiology. Br J Radiol. 2012;85(1019):e1018–31.
Delbeke D, et al. Procedure guideline for tumor imaging with 18F-FDG PET/CT 1.0. J Nucl Med. 2006;47(5):885–95.
Shen G, et al. Potential performance of dual-time-point 18F-FDG PET/CT compared with single-time-point imaging for differential diagnosis of metastatic lymph nodes: a meta-analysis. Nucl Med Commun. 2014;35(10):1003–10.
Shen G, et al. Diagnostic value of dual time-point 18 F-FDG PET/CT versus single time-point imaging for detection of mediastinal nodal metastasis in non-small cell lung cancer patients: a meta-analysis. Acta Radiol. 2015;56:681–7.
Costantini DL, et al. Dual-time-point FDG PET/CT for the evaluation of pediatric tumors. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2013;200(2):408–13.
Zukotynski KA, et al. Constant ambient temperature of 24 degrees C significantly reduces FDG uptake by brown adipose tissue in children scanned during the winter. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2009;36(4):602–6.
Shammas A, Lim R, Charron M. Pediatric FDG PET/CT: physiologic uptake, normal variants, and benign conditions. Radiographics. 2009;29(5):1467–86.
Keyes Jr JW. SUV: standard uptake or silly useless value? J Nucl Med. 1995;36(10):1836–9.
Ghanem MA, Kazim NA, Elgazzar AH. Impact of obesity on nuclear medicine imaging. J Nucl Med Technol. 2011;39(1):40–50.
Krak NC, et al. Effects of ROI definition and reconstruction method on quantitative outcome and applicability in a response monitoring trial. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2005;32(3):294–301.
Boellaard R, et al. Effects of noise, image resolution, and ROI definition on the accuracy of standard uptake values: a simulation study. J Nucl Med. 2004;45(9):1519–27.
Bemben MG, et al. Age-related variability in body composition methods for assessment of percent fat and fat-free mass in men aged 20–74 years. Age Ageing. 1998;27(2):147–53.
Nakahara T, et al. FDG uptake in the morphologically normal thymus: comparison of FDG positron emission tomography and CT. Br J Radiol. 2001;74(885):821–4.
Francis IR, et al. The thymus: reexamination of age-related changes in size and shape. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1985;145(2):249–54.
Brink I, et al. Increased metabolic activity in the thymus gland studied with 18F-FDG PET: age dependency and frequency after chemotherapy. J Nucl Med. 2001;42(4):591–5.
Ferdinand B, Gupta P, Kramer EL. Spectrum of thymic uptake at 18F-FDG PET. Radiographics. 2004;24(6):1611–6.
Sasaki M, et al. Differential diagnosis of thymic tumors using a combination of 11C-methionine PET and FDG PET. J Nucl Med. 1999;40(10):1595–601.
Heusner TA, et al. Incidental head and neck (18)F-FDG uptake on PET/CT without corresponding morphological lesion: early predictor of cancer development? Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2009;36(9):1397–406.
Elstrom RL, et al. Enhanced marrow [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose uptake related to myeloid hyperplasia in Hodgkin’s lymphoma can simulate lymphoma involvement in marrow. Clin Lymphoma. 2004;5(1):62–4.
Knopp MV, et al. Bone marrow uptake of fluorine-18-fluorodeoxyglucose following treatment with hematopoietic growth factors: initial evaluation. Nucl Med Biol. 1996;23(6):845–9.
Trout AT, et al. Optimizing the interval between G-CSF therapy and F-18 FDG PET imaging in children and young adults receiving chemotherapy for sarcoma. Pediatr Radiol. 2015;45:1001–6.
Aflalo-Hazan V, et al. Increased FDG uptake by bone marrow in major beta-thalassemia. Clin Nucl Med. 2005;30(11):754–5.
Plantade A, et al. Diffusely increased F-18 FDG uptake in bone marrow in a patient with acute anemia and recent erythropoietin therapy. Clin Nucl Med. 2003;28(9):771–2.
Hong TS, et al. Brown adipose tissue 18F-FDG uptake in pediatric PET/CT imaging. Pediatr Radiol. 2011;41(6):759–68.
Lin EC, Alavi A. PET and PET/CT: a clinical guide. 2nd ed. New York: Thieme Medical Publishers Inc.; 2009.
Bhargava P, Hanif M, Nash C. Whole-body F-18 sodium fluoride PET-CT in a patient with renal cell carcinoma. Clin Nucl Med. 2008;33(12):894–5.
Even-Sapir E, et al. Assessment of malignant skeletal disease: initial experience with 18F-fluoride PET/CT and comparison between 18F-fluoride PET and 18F-fluoride PET/CT. J Nucl Med. 2004;45(2):272–8.
Segall G, et al. SNM practice guideline for sodium 18F-fluoride PET/CT bone scans 1.0. J Nucl Med. 2010;51(11):1813–20.
Bading JR, Shields AF. Imaging of cell proliferation: status and prospects. J Nucl Med. 2008;49 Suppl 2:64S–80.
Buck AK, et al. Clinical relevance of imaging proliferative activity in lung nodules. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2005;32(5):525–33.
Everitt S, et al. Imaging cellular proliferation during chemo-radiotherapy: a pilot study of serial 18F-FLT positron emission tomography/computed tomography imaging for non-small-cell lung cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2009;75(4):1098–104.
Yamamoto Y, et al. Correlation of 18F-FLT and 18F-FDG uptake on PET with Ki-67 immunohistochemistry in non-small cell lung cancer. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2007;34(10):1610–6.
Yap CS, et al. Evaluation of thoracic tumors with 18F-fluorothymidine and 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography. Chest. 2006;129(2):393–401.
Kameyama R, et al. Detection of gastric cancer using 18F-FLT PET: comparison with 18F-FDG PET. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2009;36(3):382–8.
Yamamoto Y, et al. Detection of colorectal cancer using 18F-FLT PET: comparison with 18F-FDG PET. Nucl Med Commun. 2009;30:841–5.
Cobben DC, et al. 3′-18F-fluoro-3′-deoxy-L-thymidine: a new tracer for staging metastatic melanoma? J Nucl Med. 2003;44(12):1927–32.
Buck AK, et al. Molecular imaging of proliferation in malignant lymphoma. Cancer Res. 2006;66(22):11055–61.
Herrmann K, et al. Early response assessment using 3′-deoxy-3′-[18F]fluorothymidine-positron emission tomography in high-grade non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Clin Cancer Res. 2007;13(12):3552–8.
Kenny L, et al. Imaging early changes in proliferation at 1 week post chemotherapy: a pilot study in breast cancer patients with 3′-deoxy-3′-[18F]fluorothymidine positron emission tomography. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2007;34(9):1339–47.
Pio BS, et al. Usefulness of 3′-[F-18]fluoro-3′-deoxythymidine with positron emission tomography in predicting breast cancer response to therapy. Mol Imaging Biol. 2006;8(1):36–42.
Buck AK, et al. Imaging bone and soft tissue tumors with the proliferation marker [18F]fluorodeoxythymidine. Clin Cancer Res. 2008;14(10):2970–7.
Choi SJ, et al. [18F]3′-deoxy-3′-fluorothymidine PET for the diagnosis and grading of brain tumors. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2005;32(6):653–9.
Gilles R, et al. (18)F-fluoro-L-thymidine-PET for the evaluation of primary brain tumours in children: a report of three cases. Nucl Med Commun. 2010;31(6):482–7.
Hatakeyama T, et al. 11C-methionine (MET) and 18F-fluorothymidine (FLT) PET in patients with newly diagnosed glioma. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2008;35(11):2009–17.
Saga T, et al. Evaluation of primary brain tumors with FLT-PET: usefulness and limitations. Clin Nucl Med. 2006;31(12):774–80.
Tripathi M, et al. Comparative evaluation of F-18 FDOPA, F-18 FDG, and F-18 FLT-PET/CT for metabolic imaging of low grade gliomas. Clin Nucl Med. 2009;34(12):878–83.
Shields AF. Positron emission tomography measurement of tumor metabolism and growth: its expanding role in oncology. Mol Imaging Biol. 2006;8(3):141–50.
Shields AF, et al. Imaging proliferation in vivo with FLT and positron emission tomography. Nat Med. 1998;4(11):1334–6.
Vaupel P, Mayer A. Hypoxia in cancer: significance and impact on clinical outcome. Cancer Metastasis Rev. 2007;26(2):225–39.
Harrison LB, et al. Impact of tumor hypoxia and anemia on radiation therapy outcomes. Oncologist. 2002;7(6):492–508.
Molls M, et al. Relevance of oxygen in radiation oncology. Mechanisms of action, correlation to low hemoglobin levels. Strahlenther Onkol. 1998;174 Suppl 4:13–6.
Hockel M, et al. Association between tumor hypoxia and malignant progression in advanced cancer of the uterine cervix. Cancer Res. 1996;56(19):4509–15.
Hockel M, et al. Hypoxia and radiation response in human tumors. Semin Radiat Oncol. 1996;6(1):3–9.
Bottaro DP, Liotta LA. Cancer: out of air is not out of action. Nature. 2003;423(6940):593–5.
Dorie MJ, Brown JM. Modification of the antitumor activity of chemotherapeutic drugs by the hypoxic cytotoxic agent tirapazamine. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 1997;39(4):361–6.
Papadopoulou MV, Bloomer WD. NLCQ-1 (NSC 709257): exploiting hypoxia with a weak DNA-intercalating bioreductive drug. Clin Cancer Res. 2003;9(15):5714–20.
Beck R, et al. Pretreatment 18F-FAZA PET predicts success of hypoxia-directed radiochemotherapy using tirapazamine. J Nucl Med. 2007;48(6):973–80.
von Pawel J, et al. Tirapazamine plus cisplatin versus cisplatin in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer: a report of the international CATAPULT I study group. Cisplatin and tirapazamine in subjects with advanced previously untreated non-small-cell lung tumors. J Clin Oncol. 2000;18(6):1351–9.
Brizel DM, et al. Oxygenation of head and neck cancer: changes during radiotherapy and impact on treatment outcome. Radiother Oncol. 1999;53(2):113–7.
Grosu AL, et al. Hypoxia imaging with FAZA-PET and theoretical considerations with regard to dose painting for individualization of radiotherapy in patients with head and neck cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007;69(2):541–51.
O’Tuama LA, et al. Two-phase [11C]L-methionine PET in childhood brain tumors. Pediatr Neurol. 1990;6(3):163–70.
Utriainen M, et al. Metabolic characterization of childhood brain tumors: comparison of 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose and 11C-methionine positron emission tomography. Cancer. 2002;95(6):1376–86.
Virgolini I, et al. Procedure guidelines for PET/CT tumour imaging with 68Ga-DOTA-conjugated peptides: 68Ga-DOTA-TOC, 68Ga-DOTA-NOC, 68Ga-DOTA-TATE. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2010;37(10):2004–10.
Shulkin BL, et al. PET hydroxyephedrine imaging of neuroblastoma. J Nucl Med. 1996;37(1):16–21.
Sisson JC, Shulkin BL. Nuclear medicine imaging of pheochromocytoma and neuroblastoma. Q J Nucl Med. 1999;43(3):217–23.
Hoegerle S, et al. Pheochromocytomas: detection with 18F DOPA whole body PET--initial results. Radiology. 2002;222(2):507–12.
deKemp RA, Nahmias C. Attenuation correction in PET using single photon transmission measurement. Med Phys. 1994;21(6):771–8.
Biermann M, et al. Is there a role for PET-CT and SPECT-CT in pediatric oncology? Acta Radiol. 2013;54(9):1037–45.
Srinivasan M, Bhaskar S, Carlson DW. Variation in procedural sedation practices among Children’s Hospitals. Hosp Pediatr. 2015;5(3):148–53.
Martinez-Moller A, Nekolla SG. Attenuation correction for PET/MR: problems, novel approaches and practical solutions. Z Med Phys. 2012;22(4):299–310.
Roy S, et al. PET attenuation correction using synthetic CT from ultrashort echo-time MR imaging. J Nucl Med. 2014;55(12):2071–7.
Berker Y, Kiessling F, Schulz V. Scattered PET data for attenuation-map reconstruction in PET/MRI. Med Phys. 2014;41(10):102502.
Yip S, et al. Sensitivity study of voxel-based PET image comparison to image registration algorithms. Med Phys. 2014;41(11):111714.
Kinney H, Faix R, Brazy J. The fetal alcohol syndrome and neuroblastoma. Pediatrics. 1980;66(1):130–2.
Kramer S, et al. Medical and drug risk factors associated with neuroblastoma: a case–control study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1987;78(5):797–804.
Michalek AM, et al. Gravid health status, medication use, and risk of neuroblastoma. Am J Epidemiol. 1996;143(10):996–1001.
Bunin GR, et al. Neuroblastoma and parental occupation. Am J Epidemiol. 1990;131(5):776–80.
Strenger V, et al. Diagnostic and prognostic impact of urinary catecholamines in neuroblastoma patients. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2007;48(5):504–9.
Maris JM. Recent advances in neuroblastoma. N Engl J Med. 2010;362(23):2202–11.
Kushner BH. Neuroblastoma: a disease requiring a multitude of imaging studies. J Nucl Med. 2004;45(7):1172–88.
Olivier P, et al. Guidelines for radioiodinated MIBG scintigraphy in children. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2003;30(5):B45–50.
Lonergan GJ, et al. Neuroblastoma, ganglioneuroblastoma, and ganglioneuroma: radiologic-pathologic correlation. Radiographics. 2002;22(4):911–34.
Howman-Giles RB, Gilday DL, Ash JM. Radionuclide skeletal survey in neuroblastoma. Radiology. 1979;131(2):497–502.
Sharp SE, et al. 123I-MIBG scintigraphy and 18F-FDG PET in neuroblastoma. J Nucl Med. 2009;50(8):1237–43.
Choi YJ, et al. (18)F-FDG PET as a single imaging modality in pediatric neuroblastoma: comparison with abdomen CT and bone scintigraphy. Ann Nucl Med. 2014;28(4):304–13.
Taggart DR, et al. Comparison of iodine-123 metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) scan and [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography to evaluate response after iodine-131 MIBG therapy for relapsed neuroblastoma. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27(32):5343–9.
Piccardo A, et al. Comparison of 18F-dopa PET/CT and 123I-MIBG scintigraphy in stage 3 and 4 neuroblastoma: a pilot study. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2012;39(1):57–71.
Pashankar FD, O’Dorisio MS, Menda Y. MIBG and somatostatin receptor analogs in children: current concepts on diagnostic and therapeutic use. J Nucl Med. 2005;46 Suppl 1:55S–61.
Kroiss A, et al. Functional imaging in phaeochromocytoma and neuroblastoma with 68Ga-DOTA-Tyr3-octreotide positron emission tomography and 123I-metaiodobenzylguanidine: a clarification. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2012;39(3):543.
De Krijger RR, et al. Frequent genetic changes in childhood pheochromocytomas. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2006;1073:166–76.
Pacak K, et al. Biochemical diagnosis, localization and management of pheochromocytoma: focus on multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 in relation to other hereditary syndromes and sporadic forms of the tumour. J Intern Med. 2005;257(1):60–8.
Pacak K, Eisenhofer G, Grossman A. The incidentally discovered adrenal mass. N Engl J Med. 2007;356(19):2005.
Pacak K, et al. Pheochromocytoma: recommendations for clinical practice from the First International Symposium. October 2005. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab. 2007;3(2):92–102.
Havekes B, et al. Update on pediatric pheochromocytoma. Pediatr Nephrol. 2009;24(5):943–50.
Trampal C, et al. Pheochromocytomas: detection with 11C hydroxyephedrine PET. Radiology. 2004;230(2):423–8.
Janssen I, et al. Superiority of [68Ga]-DOTATATE PET/CT to other functional imaging modalities in the localization of SDHB-associated metastatic pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma. Clin Cancer Res. 2015;21:3888–95.
Brugieres L, Minard V, Patte C. Lymphomas in children and adolescents. Rev Prat. 2012;62(4):453–8.
Bhatia S, et al. High risk of subsequent neoplasms continues with extended follow-up of childhood Hodgkin’s disease: report from the Late Effects Study Group. J Clin Oncol. 2003;21(23):4386–94.
Prasad PK, et al. Long-term non-cancer mortality in pediatric and young adult cancer survivors in Finland. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2012;58(3):421–7.
Howman-Giles R, Stevens M, Bergin M. Role of gallium-67 in management of paediatric solid tumours. Aust Paediatr J. 1982;18(2):120–5.
Sty JR, Kun LE, Starshak RJ. Pediatric applications in nuclear oncology. Semin Nucl Med. 1985;15(2):171–200.
Elstrom R, et al. Utility of FDG-PET scanning in lymphoma by WHO classification. Blood. 2003;101(10):3875–6.
Rigacci L, et al. Positron emission tomography in the staging of patients with Hodgkin’s lymphoma. A prospective multicentric study by the Intergruppo Italiano Linfomi. Ann Hematol. 2007;86(12):897–903.
Jerusalem G, et al. Whole-body positron emission tomography using 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose compared to standard procedures for staging patients with Hodgkin’s disease. Haematologica. 2001;86(3):266–73.
London K, et al. 18F-FDG PET/CT in paediatric lymphoma: comparison with conventional imaging. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2011;38(2):274–84.
Hutchings M, et al. Position emission tomography with or without computed tomography in the primary staging of Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Haematologica. 2006;91(4):482–9.
Kabickova E, et al. Comparison of 18F-FDG-PET and standard procedures for the pretreatment staging of children and adolescents with Hodgkin’s disease. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2006;33(9):1025–31.
Moulin-Romsee G, et al. (18)F-FDG PET/CT bone/bone marrow findings in Hodgkin’s lymphoma may circumvent the use of bone marrow trephine biopsy at diagnosis staging. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2010;37(6):1095–105.
Pelosi E, et al. FDG-PET in the detection of bone marrow disease in Hodgkin’s disease and aggressive non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and its impact on clinical management. Q J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2008;52(1):9–16.
Purz S, et al. [18F]Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography for detection of bone marrow involvement in children and adolescents with Hodgkin’s lymphoma. J Clin Oncol. 2011;29(26):3523–8.
Girinsky T, et al. Is FDG-PET scan in patients with early stage Hodgkin lymphoma of any value in the implementation of the involved-node radiotherapy concept and dose painting? Radiother Oncol. 2007;85(2):178–86.
Hermann S, et al. Staging in childhood lymphoma: differences between FDG-PET and CT. Nuklearmedizin. 2005;44(1):1–7.
Muslimani AA, et al. The utility of 18-F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in evaluation of bone marrow involvement by non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Am J Clin Oncol. 2008;31(5):409–12.
Kluge R, et al. FDG PET/CT in children and adolescents with lymphoma. Pediatr Radiol. 2013;43(4):406–17.
Weiler-Sagie M, et al. (18)F-FDG avidity in lymphoma readdressed: a study of 766 patients. J Nucl Med. 2010;51(1):25–30.
Abramson SJ, Price AP. Imaging of pediatric lymphomas. Radiol Clin North Am. 2008;46(2):313–38, ix.
Toma P, et al. Multimodality imaging of Hodgkin disease and non-Hodgkin lymphomas in children. Radiographics. 2007;27(5):1335–54.
Cheson BD, et al. Revised response criteria for malignant lymphoma. J Clin Oncol. 2007;25(5):579–86.
Cahu X, et al. 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography before, during and after treatment in mature T/NK lymphomas: a study from the GOELAMS group. Ann Oncol. 2011;22(3):705–11.
Karantanis D, et al. 18F-FDG PET and PET/CT in Burkitt’s lymphoma. Eur J Radiol. 2010;75(1):e68–73.
Rini JN, et al. 18F-FDG PET versus CT for evaluating the spleen during initial staging of lymphoma. J Nucl Med. 2003;44(7):1072–4.
Seam P, Juweid ME, Cheson BD. The role of FDG-PET scans in patients with lymphoma. Blood. 2007;110(10):3507–16.
Rhodes MM, et al. Utility of FDG-PET/CT in follow-up of children treated for Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2006;28(5):300–6.
Furth C, et al. Early and late therapy response assessment with [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in pediatric Hodgkin’s lymphoma: analysis of a prospective multicenter trial. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27(26):4385–91.
Kostakoglu L, et al. PET predicts prognosis after 1 cycle of chemotherapy in aggressive lymphoma and Hodgkin’s disease. J Nucl Med. 2002;43(8):1018–27.
Kluge R, Korholz D. Role of FDG-PET in staging and therapy of children with Hodgkin lymphoma. Klin Padiatr. 2011;223(6):315–9.
Radford J, et al. Results of a trial of PET-directed therapy for early-stage Hodgkin’s lymphoma. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(17):1598–607.
Duhrsen U, et al. Positron emission tomography guided therapy of aggressive non-Hodgkin lymphomas--the PETAL trial. Leuk Lymphoma. 2009;50(11):1757–60.
Depas G, et al. 18F-FDG PET in children with lymphomas. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2005;32(1):31–8.
Bakhshi S, et al. Pediatric nonlymphoblastic non-Hodgkin lymphoma: baseline, interim, and posttreatment PET/CT versus contrast-enhanced CT for evaluation--a prospective study. Radiology. 2012;262(3):956–68.
Lavely WC, et al. FDG PET in the follow-up management of patients with newly diagnosed Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma after first-line chemotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2003;57(2):307–15.
Burns DM, Crawford DH. Epstein-Barr virus-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes for adoptive immunotherapy of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease. Blood Rev. 2004;18(3):193–209.
Blaes AH, Morrison VA. Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders following solid-organ transplantation. Expert Rev Hematol. 2010;3(1):35–44.
Taylor AL, Marcus R, Bradley JA. Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders (PTLD) after solid organ transplantation. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 2005;56(1):155–67.
Feng S, et al. Tumors and transplantation: the 2003 Third Annual ASTS State-of-the-Art Winter Symposium. Am J Transplant. 2003;3(12):1481–7.
Dharnidharka VR, et al. Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder in the United States: young Caucasian males are at highest risk. Am J Transplant. 2002;2(10):993–8.
Shapiro R, et al. Posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorders in adult and pediatric renal transplant patients receiving tacrolimus-based immunosuppression. Transplantation. 1999;68(12):1851–4.
Leblond V, et al. Lymphoproliferative disorders after organ transplantation: a report of 24 cases observed in a single center. J Clin Oncol. 1995;13(4):961–8.
Opelz G, Dohler B. Lymphomas after solid organ transplantation: a collaborative transplant study report. Am J Transplant. 2004;4(2):222–30.
Gallego S, et al. Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders in children: the role of chemotherapy in the era of rituximab. Pediatr Transplant. 2010;14(1):61–6.
Campo E, et al. The 2008 WHO classification of lymphoid neoplasms and beyond: evolving concepts and practical applications. Blood. 2011;117(19):5019–32.
Bianchi E, et al. Clinical usefulness of FDG-PET/CT scan imaging in the management of posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease. Transplantation. 2008;85(5):707–12.
Dierickx D, et al. The accuracy of positron emission tomography in the detection of posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorder. Haematologica. 2013;98(5):771–5.
O’Conner AR, Franc BL. FDG PET imaging in the evaluation of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder following renal transplantation. Nucl Med Commun. 2005;26(12):1107–11.
Takehana CS, et al. (18)F-FDG PET/CT in the management of patients with post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder. Nucl Med Commun. 2014;35(3):276–81.
Bakker NA, et al. PTLD visualization by FDG-PET: improved detection of extranodal localizations. Am J Transplant. 2006;6(8):1984–5.
Noraini AR, et al. PET-CT as an effective imaging modality in the staging and follow-up of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder following solid organ transplantation. Singapore Med J. 2009;50(12):1189–95.
Panagiotidis E, et al. (18)F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography in diagnosis of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder. Leuk Lymphoma. 2014;55(3):515–9.
von Falck C, et al. Post transplant lymphoproliferative disease in pediatric solid organ transplant patients: a possible role for [18F]-FDG-PET(/CT) in initial staging and therapy monitoring. Eur J Radiol. 2007;63(3):427–35.
Su K, et al. Diffuse homogeneous bone marrow uptake of FDG in patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Clin Nucl Med. 2013;38(1):e33–4.
Endo T, et al. Localized relapse in bone marrow of extremities after allogeneic stem cell transplantation for acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Am J Hematol. 2004;76(3):279–82.
Sharp SE, Gelfand MJ, Absalon MJ. Altered FDG uptake patterns in pediatric lymphoblastic lymphoma patients receiving induction chemotherapy that includes very high dose corticosteroids. Pediatr Radiol. 2012;42(3):331–6.
Stanescu L, et al. FDG PET of the brain in pediatric patients: imaging spectrum with MR imaging correlation. Radiographics. 2013;33(5):1279–303.
Kruer MC, et al. The value of positron emission tomography and proliferation index in predicting progression in low-grade astrocytomas of childhood. J Neurooncol. 2009;95(2):239–45.
Borgwardt L, et al. Increased fluorine-18 2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (FDG) uptake in childhood CNS tumors is correlated with malignancy grade: a study with FDG positron emission tomography/magnetic resonance imaging coregistration and image fusion. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23(13):3030–7.
Glantz MJ, et al. Identification of early recurrence of primary central nervous system tumors by [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography. Ann Neurol. 1991;29(4):347–55.
Hanson MW, et al. FDG-PET in the selection of brain lesions for biopsy. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1991;15(5):796–801.
Giovannini E, et al. Clinical applications of choline PET/CT in brain tumors. Curr Pharm Des. 2015;21(1):121–7.
Torii K, et al. Correlation of amino-acid uptake using methionine PET and histological classifications in various gliomas. Ann Nucl Med. 2005;19(8):677–83.
Ceyssens S, et al. [11C]methionine PET, histopathology, and survival in primary brain tumors and recurrence. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2006;27(7):1432–7.
Van Laere K, et al. Direct comparison of 18F-FDG and 11C-methionine PET in suspected recurrence of glioma: sensitivity, inter-observer variability and prognostic value. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2005;32(1):39–51.
Hipp SJ, et al. Molecular imaging of pediatric brain tumors: comparison of tumor metabolism using (1)(8)F-FDG-PET and MRSI. J Neurooncol. 2012;109(3):521–7.
Gilday DL, Ash JM, Reilly BJ. Radionuclide skeletal survey for pediatric neoplasms. Radiology. 1977;123(2):399–406.
Rosen G, et al. Serial thallium-201 scintigraphy in osteosarcoma. Correlation with tumor necrosis after preoperative chemotherapy. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1993;293:302–6.
Ramanna L, et al. Thallium-201 scintigraphy in bone sarcoma: comparison with gallium-67 and technetium-MDP in the evaluation of chemotherapeutic response. J Nucl Med. 1990;31(5):567–72.
Volker T, et al. Positron emission tomography for staging of pediatric sarcoma patients: results of a prospective multicenter trial. J Clin Oncol. 2007;25(34):5435–41.
Byun BH, et al. Comparison of (18)F-FDG PET/CT and (99 m)Tc-MDP bone scintigraphy for detection of bone metastasis in osteosarcoma. Skeletal Radiol. 2013;42(12):1673–81.
Huang TL, et al. Comparison between F-18-FDG positron emission tomography and histology for the assessment of tumor necrosis rates in primary osteosarcoma. J Chin Med Assoc. 2006;69(8):372–6.
Mansky PJ, et al. Treatment of metastatic osteosarcoma with the somatostatin analog OncoLar: significant reduction of insulin-like growth factor-1 serum levels. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2002;24(6):440–6.
Kong CB, et al. (1)(8)F-FDG PET SUVmax as an indicator of histopathologic response after neoadjuvant chemotherapy in extremity osteosarcoma. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2013;40(5):728–36.
Erlemann R, et al. Response of osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma to preoperative chemotherapy: assessment with dynamic and static MR imaging and skeletal scintigraphy. Radiology. 1990;175(3):791–6.
Gaston LL, et al. 18F-FDG PET response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy for Ewing sarcoma and osteosarcoma are different. Skeletal Radiol. 2011;40(8):1007–15.
Tateishi U, et al. Comparative study of FDG PET/CT and conventional imaging in the staging of rhabdomyosarcoma. Ann Nucl Med. 2009;23(2):155–61.
Klem ML, et al. PET for staging in rhabdomyosarcoma: an evaluation of PET as an adjunct to current staging tools. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2007;29(1):9–14.
Adler LP, et al. Noninvasive grading of musculoskeletal tumors using PET. J Nucl Med. 1991;32(8):1508–12.
Ricard F, et al. Additional benefit of F-18 FDG PET/CT in the staging and follow-up of pediatric rhabdomyosarcoma. Clin Nucl Med. 2011;36(8):672–7.
Moinul Hossain AK, et al. FDG positron emission tomography/computed tomography studies of Wilms’ tumor. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2010;37(7):1300–8.
Qin Z, et al. Use of 18F-FDG-PET-CT for assessment of response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy in children with Wilms tumor. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2015;37:396–401.
Wong KK, et al. The use of positron emission tomography in detecting hepatoblastoma recurrence--a cautionary tale. J Pediatr Surg. 2004;39(12):1779–81.
Mody RJ, et al. FDG PET for the study of primary hepatic malignancies in children. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2006;47(1):51–5.
Ciarallo A, et al. Value of fluorodeoxyglucose PET/computed tomography patient management and outcomes in thyroid cancer. PET Clin. 2015;10(2):265–78.
Asa S, et al. The role of FDG-PET/CT in differentiated thyroid cancer patients with negative iodine-131 whole-body scan and elevated anti-Tg level. Ann Nucl Med. 2014;28(10):970–9.
Elboga U, et al. F-18 FDG PET/CT imaging in the diagnostic work-up of thyroid cancer patients with high serum thyroglobulin, negative I-131 whole body scan and suppressed thyrotropin: 8-year experience. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2015;19(3):396–401.
Beheshti M, et al. The value of 18F-DOPA PET-CT in patients with medullary thyroid carcinoma: comparison with 18F-FDG PET-CT. Eur Radiol. 2009;19(6):1425–34.
Howe TC, et al. Role of Tc-99m DMSA (V) scanning and serum calcitonin monitoring in the management of medullary thyroid carcinoma. Singapore Med J. 2008;49(1):19–22.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Barfett, J., Vali, R., Shammas, A. (2017). Role of PET/CT in Pediatric Malignancy. In: Khalil, M. (eds) Basic Science of PET Imaging. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-40070-9_21
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-40070-9_21
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-40068-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-40070-9
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)