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The Obote Regime and Political Violence, 1962–1971

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Crisis of Legitimacy and Political Violence in Uganda, 1890 to 1979

Part of the book series: African Histories and Modernities ((AHAM))

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Abstract

When Obote received the instruments of judicial legitimacy on October 9, 1962, he faced more problems than other leaders in the region. Similarly, K. Ingham observed that “Obote began the run-up to independence with greater political problems than were faced by most of the leaders of other African states.... In lieu of a sense of nationhood, however, most of the newly independent countries had an undisputed leader who brought them through the travails of the independence struggle and now provided a focus for their loyalties..... Obote…had never had… an unassailable position.”

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Uzoigwe, ed., Uganda: The Dilemma of Nationhood: xiv.

  2. 2.

    Ingham, Obote: 78. See also, Mazrui, Soldiers and Kinsmen in Uganda: 8–13; Mutibwa, Uganda Since Independence: 24–30.

  3. 3.

    Uganda becomes Independent. London: East Africa and Rhodesia, 1962: 11; Ingham, Obote: 11, 13, 22–37.

  4. 4.

    Ingham, Obote: 11, 13, 22–37; J. Tumusiime, ed., Uganda 30 Years, 1962–1992. Kampala: Colourprint, 1992: 27.

  5. 5.

    Ingham, Obote: 40–41. See also, Ibid: 50; “The Penal Code (Amendment No. 2) Bill, 1959,” in Uganda Protectorate, Proceedings of the Legislative Council. Part II. Entebbe, 1959: 157, 162–5.

  6. 6.

    See Ingham, Obote: 51, 52; Tumusiime, Uganda 30 Years: 28. Most of the earlier meetings took place before G. S. K. Ibingira was elected by the Ankole District Council to the Legislative Council. Despite this fact, G. S. K. Ibingira, The Forging of an African Nation. New York: Viking Press, 1973: 200–9, claimed that he was the one who introduced Obote to Mutesa.

  7. 7.

    Ingham, Obote: 72–3, 75.

  8. 8.

    See Mutesa, Sir Edward’s Letter to the Secretary General of the UNO: 10.

  9. 9.

    Ibid: 11–12. See also, Kasozi, The Social Origins of Violence in Uganda: 68.

  10. 10.

    See, for example, Mutesa, Sir Edward’s Appeal to the Secretary General of the UNO: 11. An example of a work which maintained that Obote did not have adequate education to rule is Kasozi, The Social Origins of Violence in Uganda: 61.

  11. 11.

    See B. Turyahikayo-Rugyema, “The Development of Mass Nationalism, 1952–1962,” in Uzoigwe, ed., Uganda: The Dilemma of Nationhood: 248. See also, See Karugire, A Political History: 190. For a work that highlighted the difficulty of procuring legitimacy in post-colonial states in Africa, see Chabal, “Introduction: Thinking about politics in Africa,” in Cabal, ed., Political Domination in Africa: 6.

  12. 12.

    Mutibwa, Uganda Since Independence: 30.

  13. 13.

    See Uganda Protectorate, Proceedings of the National Assembly. Part III. Entebbe: Government Printer, 1962: 520.

  14. 14.

    Chabal, ed. Political Domination: 2–3, correctly noted that disillusionment with the meanings of independence was widespread in post-colonial Africa.

  15. 15.

    Respondents No. 1, 20 former members of District Councils and 31 ordinary Ugandans, interviews by author, Gulu, Jinja, Kabale, Kitgum, Mbarara and Soroti, June–August, 1984; Respondents No. 2, four former high-ranking UPC members, interviews by author, London, December 16, 1992.

  16. 16.

    See Karugire, A Political History of Uganda: 190.

  17. 17.

    See Ibid: 189–90. For discussions about ideological conflicts within UPC, see, for a start, Mamdani, Imperialism and Fascism in Uganda: 27–28; Politics and Class Formation in Uganda: 240–1; Tumusiime, Uganda 30 Years: 28; Respondents No. 3, two former cabinet ministers in Obote II, conversation with author, Nairobi, July 8, 1992; A. A. Ginyera-Pinycwa, “On the Proposed Move to the Left in Uganda,” East African Journal, February 1970: 26. See also, contribution to parliamentary debates by the Leader of Opposition, Batringaya, Uganda Protectorate, Proceedings of National Assembly. Part II: 519.

  18. 18.

    Mutesa, Sir Edward’s Appeal to the Secretary General of the UNO: 11–12.

  19. 19.

    Milton Obote, Myths and Realities: Letter to a London Friend (1970): 5. Contrary to existing evidence, Mutibwa, Uganda Since Independence: 23, asserted that “The leaders from western Uganda, including the rulers of the kingdoms themselves, were somewhat unsure of where they really belonged and to whom they should give their loyalties. But they trusted the Buganda leadership, especially that of Kabaka Mutesa who, they believed, would take care of their interests (closely linked with Buganda’s) against any tide of those men from the north and east who were now installed in Entebbe, Uganda’s administrative capital.”

  20. 20.

    Mazrui, Soldiers and Kinsmen in Uganda: 11. See also, Obote, Myths and Realities: Letter to a London Friend: 8–13, Ingham, Obote: 78; Karugire, A Political History of Uganda: 188–191; Mutibwa, Uganda Since Independence: 24–30.

  21. 21.

    See Mazrui, Soldiers and Kinsmen in Uganda: 8–13; Ingham, Obote: 78; Karugire, A Political History of Uganda: 188–191. See also, Respondents No. 4, four prominent members of UPC-without Obote and three prominent members of DP, interviews by author, Kampala, August 1992.

  22. 22.

    See Uganda Government, Uganda Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). First Session 1962–3. Entebbe: Government Printer, 1962: 154–155.

  23. 23.

    See Uganda Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). First Session 1962–3: 154–155; Engholm and Mazrui, Violent Constitutionalism in Uganda: 588; Mutesa, Sir Edward’s Appeal to the Secretary General of the UNO: 11.

  24. 24.

    See Mujaju, “The Illusion of Democracy in Uganda, 1955–1966”: 94.

  25. 25.

    Respondents No. 5, two prominent Baganda monarchists, conversation with author, London, December 5, 1993; Tumsiime, ed, Uganda 30 years: 33; Mutesa, Sir Edward’s Appeal to the Secretary General of the UNO: 11.

  26. 26.

    See Tumusiime, ed, Uganda 30 years: 33; E. Mutesa, The Desecration of My Kingdom. London: Constable, 1967: 168–170; Africa Research Bulletin, September 1–31, 1964: 168C.

  27. 27.

    Mutesa, The Desecration of My Kingdom: 168–170. According to Africa Research Bulletin, September 1–31, 1964: 168C, the Lukiko had resettled an estimated 20,000 Buganda ex-servicemen in the two Lost Counties.

  28. 28.

    Respondents No. 6, three officials at the UPC secretariat and four officials at the DP secretariat, conversation with author, Kampala, May 18, 1985; Respondents No. 7, two long-serving and prominent members of UPC, interview by author, London, December 6, 1993; J. M. Lee, “Buganda’s position in Federal Uganda,” Journal of Commonwealth Political Studies, III, 1965: 165; Obote, Myths and Realities: Letter to a London Friend: 6.

  29. 29.

    G. S. Ibingira, “Human Rights Violations Excesses: Why Uganda?” in USCF, Three Papers Presented before the Commission of Inquiry into Violations of Human Rights. Washington, USCR, 1990: 14. See also, Mutibwa, Uganda Since Independence: 30–31.

  30. 30.

    Respondents No. 8, two prominent members of NRM who were very active members of UPC, interview by author, Kampala, August, 1992; Respondent No. 9, former high-ranking member of the socialist camp in UPC, telephone conversation with author, London, December 10, 1993; Ingham, Obote: 93; Mamdani, Imperialism: 27–8; Mittelman, Ideology and Politics in Uganda: 76–77.

  31. 31.

    Respondent No. 9; Mamdani, Politics and Class Formation in Uganda: 240–1.

  32. 32.

    Respondents No. 10, two professors at Makerere University who had supported the socialist camp in UPC, conversation with author, Kampala, August 1992; Ingham, Obote: 93; Mamdani, Imperialism: 27–28; Mittelman, Ideology and Politics in Uganda: 76–77.

  33. 33.

    See Mutibwa, Uganda since Independence: 22–23; Mutesa, Sir Edward’s Appeal to the Secretary General of the UNO: 10; Kasozi, The Social Origins of Violence in Uganda: 62. At times, this linguistic cum superiority argument was presented in terms of the south verses the north of Lake Kyoga.

  34. 34.

    Obote, Myths and Realities: Letter to a London Friend: 11.

  35. 35.

    Gertzel, “The politics of Uneven Development”: 16.

  36. 36.

    Ibid: 36.

  37. 37.

    See Ginyera-Pinycwa, “On the Proposed Move to the Left in Uganda”: 23–29; Adoko, Uganda Crisis: 17–21.

  38. 38.

    General Tito Okello, Former Commander of the Defence forces (CDF) and former Head of State, interview by author, Nairobi, July 22, 1992; Ginyera-Pinycwa, “On the Proposed Move to the Left in Uganda”: 23–29; Adoko, Uganda Crisis: 17–21; Uganda Government, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Violations of Human Rights: 525–6; Obote, Myths and Realities: 20–27; Africa Research Bulletin, August 1–31, 1966: 593C; October 1–31, 1966: 640AB.

  39. 39.

    Obote, Myths and Realities: 6; Mutibwa, Uganda Since Independence: 30–1.

  40. 40.

    See Mutesa, Sir Edward’s Appeal to the Secretary General of UNO: 17.

  41. 41.

    See Obote, Myths and Realities: 6.

  42. 42.

    Ibid.

  43. 43.

    See Africa Research Bulletin, August 1–31, 1964: 132B.

  44. 44.

    See Africa Research Bulletin, September 1–30, 1964: 149A–150B.

  45. 45.

    Ibid.

  46. 46.

    Mutesa, Desecration of My Kingdom: 180.

  47. 47.

    See Obote, Myths and Realities: 5–6; Africa Research Bulletin, August 1–31, 1964: 132C; Africa Research Bulletin, September 1–31, 1964: 168C; Sathyamurthy, The Political Development of Uganda: 1900–1986: 416; Mittelman, Ideologies and Politics in Uganda: 78.

  48. 48.

    See Obote, Myths and Realities: 5–6; Engholm and Mazrui, Violent Constitutionalism in Uganda: 588; Africa Research Bulletin, August 1–31, 1964: 132C; Africa Research Bulletin, September 1–31, 1964: 168C; Sathyamurthy, The Political Development of Uganda: 416; Mittelman, Ideologies and Politics in Uganda: 78; Africa Research Bulletin, November 1–31, 1964: 187A; Africa Research Bulletin, April 1–30, 1965: 275C.

  49. 49.

    See Uganda Government, Report of the Human Rights Commission of Inquiry into Violations of Human Rights: 22. See also, Adoko, Uganda Crisis. 7.

  50. 50.

    Mutesa, Desecration of My Kingdom: 180. See also, Africa Research Bulletin, August 1–31, 1964: 132B; September 1–31, 1964: 149A–150B; Obote, Myths and Realities: 6; Ingham, Obote: 96; Africa Research Bulletin, January 1–31, 1966: 450BC; Africa Research Bulletin, January 1–31, 1965: 225B; Low, Political Parties in Uganda, 1949–1962: 56–57; Africa Research Bulletin, April 1–30, 1965: 277B, 334B; Africa Research Bulletin, September 1–30, 1965: 365B; Africa Research Bulletin, March 1–31, 1965: 262A.

  51. 51.

    See Africa Research Bulletin, November 1–30, 1964: 187B; Mutesa, Sir Edward’s Appeal to the Secretary General of UNO: 11; Engholm and Mazrui, “Violent Constitutionalism,”: 589.

  52. 52.

    Sathyamurthy, The Political Development of Uganda: 425–428.

  53. 53.

    Engholm and Mazrui, Violent Constitutionalism in Uganda: 588. See also, Uganda Government, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Violations of Human Rights: 86.

  54. 54.

    See Tumusiime, Uganda 30 years: 33; Uganda Government, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Violations of Human Rights: 22, 369.

  55. 55.

    See Mutesa, Sir Edward’s Appeal to the Secretary General of UNO: 19; Ingham, Obote: 96.

  56. 56.

    See Karugire, A Political History of Uganda: 189–90; Ingham, Obote : 96.

  57. 57.

    See Sathyamurthy, The Political Development of Uganda: 429; Africa Research Bulletin, April 1–30, 1965: 225B, 333B; Africa Research Bulletin, September 1–30, 1965: 365B.

  58. 58.

    Respondents No. 11, 10 long-serving members of UPC and 15 long-serving members of DP, conversation with author, Arua, Gulu, Jinja, Kabale, Kasese and Mbarara, June–August 1984; Respondents No. 12, two prominent and active members of UPC, interview by author, London, December 12, 1992.

  59. 59.

    See Mutesa, Sir Edward’s Appeal to the Secretary General of the UNO: 17; Respondents No. 13, seven prominent members of the Conservative Party (CP), interview by author, Kampala, August 18, 1985.

  60. 60.

    Respondents No. 13, seven prominent members of the Conservative Party (CP), Kampala, August 18, 1985; Mamdani, Imperialism and Fascism in Uganda: 27–8; Uganda Government, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Violations of Human Rights: 525–6; Obote, Myths and Realities: 20–27; Africa Research Bulletin, August 1–31, 1966: 593C; October 1–31, 1966: 640AB. T. K. Hopkins, “Non-alignment,” in Uganda Argus, Thoughts of an African Leader. Kampala, Longman, 1970: 65, maintained that Obote was generally perceived in the West as having a pro-communist leaning.

  61. 61.

    Tito Okello, interview by author, Nairobi, July 23, 1992; Adoko, Uganda Crisis: 2–4.

  62. 62.

    Adoko, Uganda Crisis: 2–4.

  63. 63.

    Respondents No. 14, three cabinet ministers in Obote II and two high-ranking UPC members, conversation with author, Nakasero, Kampala, December 18, 1984; Respondents No. 15, two prominent DP members of parliament from Buganda, conversation with author, Wandegeya, Kampala, April 17, 1985.

  64. 64.

    See S. Hempstone, Rebels, Mercenaries and Dividens: The Katanga Story. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1962: 3–230; I. Kabongo, “Myths and Realities of the Zairian Crisis,” in Nzongola-Ntalaja, ed., The Crisis in Zaire: 27–50; A. Ajala, Pan-Africanism: Evolution, Progress and Prospects. London: Andre Deutsch, 1974: 22–33; “MI6 and the death of patrice Lumumba,” The BBC, April 2, 2013; Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja, “Patrice Lumumba: the most important assassination of the twentieth century, The Guardian, London, January 17, 2011; Adam Hochschild, “An Assassination’s Long Shadow,” The New York Times, January 16, 2011; Scott Shane, “Lawrence R. Devlin, 86, CIA officer Who Balked on a Congo Plot, Is Dead,” The New York Times, December 12, 2008.

  65. 65.

    Ajala, Pan-Africanism: Evolution, Progress and Prospects: 22–33; “MI6 and the death of patrice Lumumba,” The BBC, April 2, 2013; Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja, “Patrice Lumumba: the most important assassination of the twentieth century, The Guardian, London, January 17, 2011; Adam Hochschild, “An Assassination’s Long Shadow,” The New York Times, January 16, 2011; Scott Shane, “Lawrence R. Devlin, 86, CIA officer Who Balked on a Congo Plot, Is Dead,” The New York Times, December 12, 2008.

  66. 66.

    See Ajala, Pan-Africanism Ibid.

  67. 67.

    See Ingham, Obote: 103; Adoko, Uganda Crisis: 28–36; Mutesa, Sir Edward’s Appeal to the Secretary General of UNO: 12; Z. Cervenka, The Unfinished Quest for Unity: Africa and the OAU. New York: African Publishing Company, 1977: 1–11.

  68. 68.

    Respondents No. 10, two professors at Makerere University, former supporters of the socialist camp in UPC, Kampala, August 1992; Adoko, Uganda Crisis: 43, 49.

  69. 69.

    Cited in Adoko, Uganda Crisis: 37. See also, Africa Research Bulletin, February 1–28, 1966: 469ABC; Sathyamurthy, The Political Development of Uganda: 429–32.

  70. 70.

    See Mutesa, Sir Edward’s Appeal to the Secretary General of the UNO: 14; Africa Research Bulletin, February 1–28, 1966: 469ABC; Mittelman, Ideologies and Politics in Uganda: 79–80; Ingham, Obote: 103.

  71. 71.

    Cited in Adoko, Uganda Crisis: 51–2.

  72. 72.

    See, Ingham, Obote: 104; Adoko, Uganda Crisis: 28–55; Engholm and Mazrui, “Violent Constitutionalism in Uganda”: 595; Respondents No. 16, seven former members of parliament: three (UPC) and four (DP), interviews by author, Kampala, August 1992.

  73. 73.

    Tito Okello, interview by author, Nairobi, July 24, 1992; Lieutenant Colonel Francis Agwa, former Joint Chairman of Security Committee, conversation with author, Koigi Apartments, Nairobi, September 15, 1986; Adoko, Uganda Crisis: 58–9.

  74. 74.

    Respondents No. 3, two former cabinet ministers in Obote II, Nairobi, July 8, 1992; Adoko, Uganda Crisis: 9–10; Mutesa, Sir Edward’s Appeal to the Secretary General of the UNO: 17; Mutesa, Desecration of My Kingdom: 185–6.

  75. 75.

    Adoko, Uganda Crisis: 62. Similar views were expressed by Tito Okello, interview by author, Nairobi, July 23, 1992; Agwa, conversation with author, Nairobi, September 15, 1986.

  76. 76.

    Tito Okello, interview by author, Nairobi, July 23, 1992; Brigadier Basilio Okello, Brigade Commander of the 10th Brigade, conversation with author, Kololo, Kampala, May 14, 1985; Respondents No. 17, six former senior UNLA officers, interview by author, London, December 8, 1994.

  77. 77.

    The Commission began its work on March 7, 1966. Among those who appeared before the Commission were: Daudi Ocheng, General Olenga (the leader of the military wing of the Congolese rebel group), Mr. Nyati (political leader of the Congolese rebel group), and Army Chief of Staff, Idi Amin. Obote provided a statement to the Commission through his Counsel. The Commission concluded that the main cause of the rumors was an attempt by the government to provide a clandestine support to the rebels in Congo. It found no wrong doing on the part of Obote, Amin and the two ministers. See Adoko, Uganda Crisis: 64–5; Tumusiime, ed., Uganda 30 Years, 1962–1992: 34; Africa Research Bulletin, February 1–28, 1966: 469B; Africa Research Bulletin, March 1–31, 1966: 491B; Mazrui, “Privilege and Protests as Integrative Factors: the case of Buganda’s status in Uganda,” in Rotberg and Mazrui, eds., Protest and Power in Black Africa: 1072–3.

  78. 78.

    See Engholm and Mazrui, “Violent Constitutionalism,”: 595; Ingham, Obote: 108; Mutesa, Sir Edward’s Appeal to the Secretary General of UNO: 15–16; Tumusiime, ed., Uganda 30 Years: 34; Adoko, Uganda Crisis: 70, 128.

  79. 79.

    See Mutesa, Sir Edward’s Appeal to the Secretary General of UNO: 15–16.

  80. 80.

    See Engholm and Mazrui, “Violent Constiututionalism,”: 595–6.

  81. 81.

    Cited in Africa Research Bulletin, February 1–28, 1966: 469B.

  82. 82.

    Every regime and political system is capable of writing or rewriting its own moral code justifying political violence against its perceived opponents. For a similar perspective, see K.W. Grundy and M.A. Weinstein, The Ideologies of Violence. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1974: v; B. Woodward, “Moral Reasoning and Repressive Violence,” in M. Hoefnagels, ed., Repression and Repressive Violence. Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitinger, 1977: 14–16; G. A. Lopenz, “National Security Ideology as an Impetus to State Violence and State Terror,” in M. Stohl and G. A. Lopenz, eds., Government Violence and Repression: An Agenda for Research. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1986: 76.

  83. 83.

    Cited in Africa Research Bulletin, February 1–28, 1966: 469BC. See also, Obote, Myths and Realities: 19–27.

  84. 84.

    See “Uganda: Outline to the New Constitution,” NEFA Bulletin, London (May, 1966): 1–5; Sathyamurthy, The Political Development of Uganda: 433; Engholm and Mazrui, Violent Constitutionalism in Uganda: 585–598.

  85. 85.

    See Africa Research Bulletin, March 1–31, 1966: 495A.

  86. 86.

    For a similar discussion about the murky distinction between civilian and military rule in such a political environment, see S. Decalo, Coups and Army Rule in Africa. New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1976: 16.

  87. 87.

    Mutesa, Desecration of My Kingdom: 183; Mutesa, Sir Edward’s Appeal to the Secretary General of UNO: 17–18.

  88. 88.

    Mutesa, Desecration of My Kingdom: 185–6. In two letters addressed to Obote and circulated to the press on March 3, 1966, Mutesa pointed out that the arrest of the five Ministers and the suspension of the Constitution were illegal. See also, Mutesa, Sir Edward’s Appeal to the Secretary General of UNO: 18–9; Africa Research Bulletin, March 1–31, 1966: 489C–490A.

  89. 89.

    See “Uganda: Outline of the New Constitution,” NEFA Bulletin, London, (May 1966): 1–5. For a useful discussion of the dilemma of national integration during this period, see G.M Carter, ed., National Unity and Regionalism in Eight African States. New York: Cornell University Press, 1966: 411–422.

  90. 90.

    Cited in “Uganda: Outline of the New Constitution”: 1.

  91. 91.

    See P. J. Nkambo Mugerwa, “The Attorney General of Uganda on the Press,” Transition, 39, 8 (October, 1971): 29.

  92. 92.

    See Mittelman, Ideology and Politics in Uganda: 19; Sathyamurthy, The Political Development of Uganda: 435; Africa Research Bulletin, April 1–30, 1966: 511C; Abu Mayanja, “The Government’s Proposal for a New Constitution of Uganda,” Transition, 32, 7 (August/September, 1967): 20–25. See also, J. M. Lee, “Buganda’s Position in Federal Uganda,” Journal of Commonwealth Political Studies, III, 3 (November 1965): 176.

  93. 93.

    Africa Research Bulletin, May 1–31, 1966: 535A.

  94. 94.

    See the Lukiko’s Statement of April 18, 1966, in Mutesa, Sir Eward’s Appeal to the Secretary General of UNO: 23–4.

  95. 95.

    See Mutesa, Desecration of My Kingdom: 192; Mutesa, Sir Edward’s Appeal to the Secretary of UNO: 18–19; Obote, Myths and Realities: 7–11; Africa Research Bulletin, March 1–31, 1966: 490A; Africa Research Bulletin, May 1–31, 1966: 535B. For useful perspectives on the legitimacy of constitutions and courts, see Kittrie, The War Against Authority: From Crisis of Legitimacy to a New Social Contract: 1, 7–9. For informed debates on the relationship between frustration and aggression, see R. A. Baron, Human Aggression. New York & London: Plenum Press, 1977: 22–32; N. E. Miller, “Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis,” Psychological Review, 48 (1941): 33–342.

  96. 96.

    For a similar view, see Mutesa, Desecration of My Kingdom: 192; Africa Research Bulletin, May 1–31, 1966: 535A. Similar acts of political violence were employed during the colonial period to achieve similar objectives. See Ghai, “The Baganda Trade Boycott,”: 755–770; Uganda Protectorate, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disturbances in Uganda during April, 1949: 16–17, 71–109; Low, Political Parties in Uganda, 1949–1962: 37; Mengo, Buganda’s Independence: 15. For works that view political violence as a possible bargaining strategy, see H. L. Nieburg, Political Violence. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1969: 5–163; “The Threat of Violence and Social Change,” American Political Science Review, LVI (December, 1962): 867; Gurr, Why Men Rebel: 208–15; T. C. Schelling, Arms and Influence. New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1966: 1–34.

  97. 97.

    Respondents No. 15, two prominent DP members of parliament, Kampala, April 17, 1985; Respondents No. 18, four members of FEDEMU who were former members of KY, interview by author, Dr. Nsibirwa’s Clinic in Nairobi, July 15, 1992.

  98. 98.

    Africa Research Bulletin, May 1–31, 1966: 535A; Respondents No. 16.

  99. 99.

    Respondents No. 16, seven former members of parliament: three UPC and four DP, Kampala, August 1992.

  100. 100.

    Sir Edward’s Appeal to the Secretary General of UNO: 8–9.

  101. 101.

    See Africa Research Bulletin, May 1–31, 1966: 534C, 535B; Obote, Myths and Realities: 8.

  102. 102.

    Respondents No. 18, four members of FEDEMU (former members of KY), Dr. Nsibirwa’s Clinic, Nairobi, July 15, 1992; Obote, Myths and Realities: 8; Africa Research Bulletin, March 1–31, 1966: 490A; Africa Research Bulletin, May 1–31, 1966: 535B.

  103. 103.

    See Mutesa, Desecration of My Kingdom: 192; Obote, Myths and Realities: 7–11; Africa Research Bulletin, March 1–31, 1966: 490A; Africa Research Bulletin, May 1–31, 1966: 535B.

  104. 104.

    Mutesa, Desecration of My Kingdom: 25.

  105. 105.

    See Ibid: 192; Obote, Myths and Realities: 7–11; Africa Research Bulletin, May 1–31, 1966: 535A.

  106. 106.

    See Mutesa, Desecration of My Kingdom: 24.

  107. 107.

    See Uganda Government, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Violations of Human Rights: 513.

  108. 108.

    “Uganda—Outside and Inside,” Africa Confidential, 25 (December 22, 1967): 7.

  109. 109.

    Mutesa, Desecration of My Kingdom: 9–26.

  110. 110.

    Ibid.

  111. 111.

    See Ibid: 24–5. Mutesa estimated that over 600 troops were involved in the raid. However, according to Obote, Myths and Realities: 8–10, only 40 troops, including officers, were involved in the raid. Obote also claimed that none of the unarmed civilians, including children and women, who were at the palace were killed in the raid. This claim, however, is contradicted by that of the Katikiro of Buganda, Mayanja Nkangi, which suggested that over 100 Baganda were killed during the raid. See Mayanja Nkangi’s testimony in Uganda Government, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Violations of Human Rights: 514. See also, Standard Newspaper, Nairobi, 24 June 1966: 1.

  112. 112.

    The counter-terror tactic the regime employed also destroyed whatever myth that might had persisted about national integration or national unity. See Africa Research Bulletin, October 1–31, 1968: 1215A; Africa Research Bulletin, March 1–30, 1969: 1360B; Africa Research Bulletin, April 1–30, 1968: 1045BC; Sathyamurthy, The Political Development of Uganda: 436–438; Mutesa, Desecration of My Kingdom: 10, 24, 192; Africa Research Bulletin, May 1–31, 1966: 534C–535ABC; M. H. Segall, M. Doornbos and C. Davis, Political Identity: A Case Study from Uganda. Syracuse: Syracuse University, 1976: 2–7.

  113. 113.

    See the report by Minister of Internal Affairs, Basil Batringaya, to parliament on November 18, 1966. Reprinted in Uganda Government, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Violations of Human Rights: 113–114. See also, “Treading Softly in Uganda,” Africa Confidential, 17 (August 18, 1967): 4.

  114. 114.

    See Abu Mayanja, “The Government’s Proposals for a new Constitution of Uganda,”Transition, 31, 6 (June/July, 1967): 20–25. See also, Nelson Kasfir, “The 1967 Uganda Constituent Assembly Debate,” Transition, 33, 7 (October/November, 1967): 52.

  115. 115.

    Respondents No. 7. See also, Africa Research Bulletin, April 1–30, 1967: 760A; Africa Research Bulletin, April 1–31, 1967: 789C; Obote, Myths and Realities: 15–16.

  116. 116.

    Africa Research Bulletin, April 1–30, 1967: 760A; Africa Research Bulletin, April 1–31, 1967: 789C; Obote, Myths and Realities: 15–16.

  117. 117.

    Abu Mayanja, “The Government’s Proposals for a new Constitution of Uganda,” Transition, 31, 6 (June/July, 1967): 20.

  118. 118.

    Respondents No. 2, four former high-ranking UPC members, London, December 16, 1992; Respondents No. 7, two long-serving and prominent members of UPC, London, December 6, 1993.

  119. 119.

    Kasfir, “The 1967 Uganda Constituent Assembly”: 54; Africa Research Bulletin, June 1–30, 1967: 798BC–799A, 801B.

  120. 120.

    This line of analysis is adopted from Chabal, ed., Political Domination in Africa: 3–17.

  121. 121.

    Kasfir, “The 1967 Uganda Constituent Assembly”: 52, 54; Africa Research Bulletin, July 1–31, 1967: 818C.

  122. 122.

    See Kasfir, “The 1967 Uganda Constituent Assembly”: 56; Obote, Myths and Realities: 14.

  123. 123.

    See Abu Mayanja, “The Government’s Proposals for a new Constitution of Uganda, ”Transition, 31, 6 (June/July, 1967): 20–25. See also, Nelson Kasfir, “The 1967 Uganda Constituent Assembly Debate,” Transition, 33, 7 (October/November, 1967): 52; Kasfir, “The 1967 Uganda Constituent Assembly Debate”: 52–55. For favorable views on the proposed constitution, see, for example, A. W. Bradley, “Constitution-Making in Uganda,” Transition, 31, 6 (June/July, 1967): 25–31; Odur-Aper, “The Uganda Constitution,” Transition, 34, 7 (December/January, 1968): 9–11; Picho Ali, “The 1967 Republican Constitution of Uganda,” Transition, 34, 7 (December/January, 1968): 11–13.

  124. 124.

    Ibid: 52; Africa Research Bulletin, August 1–31, 1967: 836C–837A; “Government’s Proposals for a new Constitution,” Transition, 33, 7 (October/November, 1967): 43; Engholm and Mazrui, Violent Constitutionalism in Uganda: 585–599; Mittelman, Ideology and Politics in Uganda: 82.

  125. 125.

    Cited in “Uganda—Outside and In,” Africa Confidential, 25 (December 22, 1967): 7. See also, “Uganda—the extension of the Emergency,” Africa Confidential, 10 (May 17, 1968): 5.

  126. 126.

    See Uganda Government, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Violations of Human Rights: 113–114; “Treading Softly in Uganda, ”Africa Confidential, 17 (August 18, 1967): 4.

  127. 127.

    See Africa Research Bulletin, March 1–31, 1967: 741C; Africa Research Bulletin, July 1–31, 1967: 823BC; Africa Research Bulletin, August 1–31, 1968: 1155A; Africa Research Bulletin, June 1–30, 1969: 1445C–1446A; Africa Research Bulletin, July 1–31, 1969: 1473B; Africa Research Bulletin, August 1–31, 1969: 1501B.

  128. 128.

    See, for example, Ogenga Otunnu, “Mwalimu Julius Kambarage Nyerere’s philosophy, contribution, and legacies,” African Identities, 13, 1, February 2015: 18–33.

  129. 129.

    See Ginyera-Pinycwa, “On the Proposed Move to the Left,”: 24.

  130. 130.

    See A. M. Obote, The Common Man’s Charter. Entebbe: The Government Printer, 1970; The Financial Times, Thursday, May 14, 1970, cited in Uganda Argus, Thoughts of an African Leader. Kampala: Longman, 1970: 62; Ginyera-Pinycwa, On the Proposed Move to the Left,”: 23–29; Mamdani, Imperialism and Fascism in Uganda: 30.

  131. 131.

    Ginyera-Pinycwa, “On the Proposed Move to the Left”: 28.

  132. 132.

    Ibid: 25, 28. For the type of a socialist project that the Arusha Declaration proposed, see The Arusha Declaration and TANU’s Policy of Socialism and Self-Reliance. Reprinted in I. L. Markovitz, African Politics and Society. New York: Free Press, 1970: 266–276.

  133. 133.

    Dr. A. Milton Obote, Communication from the Chair of the National Assembly on 20 April, 1970. Cited in Rev. David Mason, The Crisis for British Asians in Uganda. London: The British Council of Churches, October 1970: 1.

  134. 134.

    Manson, The Crisis for British Asians in Uganda: 1–14.

  135. 135.

    Ibid. The demand for the Africanization of trade and commerce dated back to the colonial period. Later in 1968, the government formed a committee to recommend how the demand could be met. See Uganda Government, Report of the Committee on Africanisation of Commerce and Industry in Uganda. Entebbe: Government Printer, May 16, 1968.

  136. 136.

    Mason, The Crisis for British Asians in Uganda: 3, 13–15.

  137. 137.

    Respondents No. 19, three former Ugandan Asians, interview by author, London, December 19, 1993; Respondents No. 20, six former Ugandan Asians, interview by author, Coventry, December 20, 1993.

  138. 138.

    “Uganda: Further left or right incline?” Africa Confidential, 11, 20 (October 2, 1970): 6.

  139. 139.

    Respondents No. 10, two professors at Makerere University, former supporters of the socialist camp in UPC, Kampala, August 1992; Respondents No. 21, two former prominent members of the pro-capitalist camp in UPC, interview by author, Kampala, August, 1992; Mamdani, Imperialism and Fascism in Uganda: 30.

  140. 140.

    See Obote, The Common Man’s Charter: 13–21; Ginyera-Pinycwa, “On the Proposed Move to the Left”: 25; Africa Research Bulletin, October 1–31: 180AB; Africa Research Bulletin, October 1–31, 1969: 1569AB; Mamdani, Imperialism and Fascism in Uganda: 29–30; Sathyamurthy, The Political, Development of Uganda: 530.

  141. 141.

    Mamdani, imperialism and Fascism in Uganda: 30.

  142. 142.

    Africa Research Bulletin, October 1–31: 180AB; Africa Research Bulletin, October 1–31, 1969: 1569AB; Sathyamurthy, The Political, Development of Uganda: 530.

  143. 143.

    See Africa Research Bulletin, October 1–31, 1969: 180AB; Africa Research Bulletin, October 1–31, 1969: 1569AB; Mamdani, Imperialism and Fascism: 29–30; Sathyamurthy, The Political Development of Uganda: 530; Africa Research Bulletin, December 1–31, 1966: 678C; Mazrui, Soldiers and Kinsmen in Uganda: 16–18; “Uganda: Obote Survives,” Africa Confidential 11, 1 (January 2, 1970): 6; Ingham, Obote: 125.

  144. 144.

    “Uganda—Outside and In,” Africa Confidential, 25 (December 22, 1967): 7–8; Africa Research Bulletin, December 1–31, 1969: 1616BC.

  145. 145.

    “Uganda: Obote survives,” Africa Confidential: 6; Africa Research Bulletin, December 1–31, 1969: 1616BC; Africa Research Bulletin, July 1–31, 1969: 1473B; Africa Research Bulletin, September 1–30, 1969: 1533A.

  146. 146.

    A. M. Obote, Proposals for New Methods of Elections of the People to Parliament. Kampala: Milton Obote Foundation, 1970: 1.

  147. 147.

    “Uganda: Obote survives,” Africa Confidential: 6; Africa Research Bulletin, December 1–31, 1969: 1616BC; Africa Research Bulletin, July 1–31, 1969: 1473B; Africa Research Bulletin, September 1–30, 1969: 1533A.

  148. 148.

    For a similar line of argument see A. Syahuka-Muhindo, “The Rwenzururu Movement and the Democratic Struggle,” in M. Mamdani and J. Oloka-Onyango, eds., Uganda: Studies in Living Conditions, Popular Movements and Constitutionalism. Viena and Kampala: JEP and Centre for Basic Research, 1994: 302, 305.

  149. 149.

    Cited in Africa Research Bulletin, September 1–30, 1965: 365B.

  150. 150.

    See Uganda Government, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Recent Disturbances amongst the Baamba and Bakonjo People of Toro, especially: 7–11, 29; Syahuka-Muhindo, “The Rwenzururu Movement and the Democratic Struggle”: 294–311.

  151. 151.

    See, M.R. Doornbos, “Kumanyana and Rwenzururu: Two Responses to Ethnic Inequality,” in Rotberg and. Mazrui, Protest in Black Africa: 1088–1091, 1109–1110; Syahuka-Muhindo, “The Rwenzururu Movement and the Democratic Struggle”: 302.

  152. 152.

    See Syahuka-Muhindo, “The Rwenzururu Movement and the Democratic Struggle”: 300–303.

  153. 153.

    See Uganda Argus, March 10–11, 1964, cited in Africa Research Bulletin, March 1964: 41C. See also, Africa Research Bulletin, June 1–30, 1964: 94C; Africa Research Bulletin, August 1–31, 1964: 133B; Africa Research Bulletin, September 1–30, 1964: 151A;

  154. 154.

    Respondents No. 22, eight former members of the Rwenzururu Movement, interview by author, Kasese, December 17, 1983; Respondents No. 23, three former officers of the Rwenzururu Movement, interview by author, Bundibugyo, August 25, 1984; Major M. Kapuchu, UNLA officer from the Rwenzori mountains, interview by author, Kampala, July 22, 1984.

  155. 155.

    For debates on the freedom of expression, see, for a start, F. Caravan, Freedom of Expression. Durham, North Carolina: Carolina Academic Press, 1984, especially: 1–6; W. A. Hachten and C. A. Giffard, The Press and Apartheid: Repression and Propaganda in South Africa. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984: vii–xvi.

  156. 156.

    See B. Turyahikayo-Rugyema, “The Development of Mass Nationalism, 1952–1962,” in Uzoigwe, ed., Uganda: The Dilemma of Nationhood: 231–233.

  157. 157.

    Uganda Becomes Independent: 14.

  158. 158.

    See contribution to debates in the Uganda Legislative Council on December 16, 1952 by A.N. Maini, in Uganda Protectorate, Proceedings of the Legislative Council. Third, Fourth and Fifth Meetings of the Thirty-Second Session. Entebbe: Government Printer, 1963: 22.

  159. 159.

    Daniel Nelson, “Newspapers in Uganda,” Transition, 35, 7 (February/March, 1968): 29–33; A. C. Duffield, “Press Freedom” Transition, 36, n.d: 6.

  160. 160.

    Dr. Ojok Mulozi, prominent DP member and former Minister of Information, telephone conversation with author, August 27, 1992; Nelson, “Newspapers in Uganda”: 29–33; Duffield, “Press Freedom”: 6.

  161. 161.

    Dr. Ojok Mulozi, telephone conversation with author, August 27, 1992; Africa Research Bulletin, August 1–31, 1964: 136A.

  162. 162.

    Cited in Africa Research Bulletin, July 1–31, 1964: 122A.

  163. 163.

    See Nelson, “Newspapers in Uganda,”: 30.

  164. 164.

    Dr. Ojok Mulozi, telephone conversation with author, August 27, 1992; Africa Research Bulletin, April 1–30, 1966: 525B;

  165. 165.

    Dr. Ojok Mulozi, telephone conversation with author, August 27, 1992.

  166. 166.

    See “Treading Softly in Uganda,” Africa Confidential, 17 (August 18, 1967): 4.

  167. 167.

    Obote, Myths and Realities: 14.

  168. 168.

    Engholm and Mazrui, Violent Constitutionalism in Uganda: 593–4.

  169. 169.

    Dr. Ojok Mulozi, telephone conversation with author, August 27, 1992; Respondents No. 7, two long-serving and prominent members of UPC, London, December 6, 1993.

  170. 170.

    See Africa Research Bulletin, April 1–30, 1966: 525B.

  171. 171.

    See Obote, Myths and Realities: 1–35; “Uganda: An Outline of the New Constitution,” NEFA Bulletin: 3; Nelson, “Newspapers in Uganda,”: 30; Africa Research Bulletin, January 1–31, 1965: 234C, 239C, 255AB, 257BC; April 1–30, 1965: 362A; Africa Research Bulletin, April 1–30, 1965: 365B; Africa Research Bulletin, April 1–30, 1966: 525B.

  172. 172.

    Cited in “Uganda: An Outline of the New Constitution”: 3.

  173. 173.

    See A.C. Duffield, “Press Freedom,” Transition, 36 (1968): 6; Davis Sebukima, “Obote’s Infiltration of University Student Bodies,” Transition, 38, 8 (June–July, 1971): 49.

  174. 174.

    See Chief Magistrate, M. Saied, “The Judgment,”Transition 38, 8 (June–July, 1971): 47. See also, Duffield, “Press Freedom”: 6; Sebukima, “Obote’s Infiltration of University Student Bodies”: 49.

  175. 175.

    Ibid: 48–9; Africa Research Bulletin, January 1–31, 1969: 1300A; Obote, Myths and Realities: 17–19; Mazrui, Soldiers and Kinsmen in Uganda: 19–21.

  176. 176.

    See Ogenga Otunnu, “Rwandese Refugees and Immigrants in Uganda,” in Howard Adelman and Astri Shurke, eds., The Path of Genocide: The Rwandan Crisis from Uganda to Zaire. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2000: 3–30; Mauri Yambo, “Ah Well, Back to the Drawing-Board,” Transition 39, 8 (October, 1971): 10; Peter Rigby, “Letter to the Editor,” Transition, 39, 8 (October, 1971): 10; P. J. Nkambo Mugerwa, “The Attorney General of Uganda on the Press,” Transition, 39, 8 (October, 1971): 19–21; Engholm and Mazrui, Violent Constitutionalism in Uganda: 595–7. For a good discussion on how political repression become institutionalized through legal apparatus, see R. J. Goldstein, Political Repression in Modern America. Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman, 1978: 429–504.

  177. 177.

    “Uganda—Outside and inside,” Africa Confidential, 25 (December 22, 1967): 7. This form of resistance to repression of the press and denial of freedom of speech is common in the history of the press. See, for example, R. J. Goldstein, Political Repression in Nineteenth Century Europe. Totowa, New Jersey: Barnes & Noble Books, 1983, especially: 6–54; Political Repression in Modern America. Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman Publishing, 1978, especially: 9, 70–76, 432–504; Hachten and Gifford, The Press and Apartheid: viii-5.

  178. 178.

    R. Lemarchand, Rwanda and Burundi. London: Pall Mall Press, 1970: 81.83, 146–173.

  179. 179.

    See Uganda Protectorate, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disturbances in Uganda during April 1949, especially: 16–17, 21–3, 31–65, 71–101; Report of the Commission appointed to Review Boundary between the Districts of Bugishu and Bukedi. Entebbe: Government Printer, 1962; Report of Inquiry into Disturbances in the Eastern Province, 1960. Entebbe: Government Printer, March 1962, especially: 14–15; Proceedings of the Legislative Council. Entebbe: Government Printer, September, 1959: 159–172; Uganda Government, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Recent Disturbances Amongst the Baamba and Bakonjo People of Toro; Mengo, Buganda’s Independence.

  180. 180.

    The Cattle Disease Ordinance of 1902. This ordinance was later reinforced by The Cattle Disease (Amendment) Ordinance of 1913 and The Cattle Disease Ordinance (Control Ordinance) of June 23, 1954. See Uganda Protectorate, The Cattle Disease Ordinance, 1902; The Cattle Disease (Amendment) Ordinance, 1913. CO 612/6.

  181. 181.

    See Uganda Protectorate, An Ordinance to Make Provision for the Registration of Persons of the Kikuyu Tribe of Kenya, 22 February, 1954. CO 684/9. For useful information on the Mau Mau revolt or revolution see C. Elkins, Imperial Reckoning: The Untold Story of Britain’s Gulag in Kenya. New York: Henry Holt, 2005; G. Kitching, Class and Economic Change in Kenya. New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1980: 25–311; T. Kanogo, Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau. London: James Currey, 1987: 125–178.

  182. 182.

    See, for example, Otunnu, “Rwandese Refugees and Immigrants in Uganda”: 3–30; G. Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide. New York: Columbia University Press, 1995: 47–48.

  183. 183.

    Uganda Protectorate, Proceedings of the Legislative Council. Entebbe: The Government Printer, 29 February 1960: 164, 170. Evolution of refugee policies is highlighted by the following legislations: Uganda Protectorate, The Refugees (Control and Expulsion) Ordinance, 1947. CO 684/6; Uganda Protectorate, An Ordinance to make Further and Better Provision for Regulation of Immigration into the Protectorate, No. 33 of 1947. CO 684/6; Uganda Protectorate, An Ordinance to amend the Immigration (Control) Ordinance, 1947, No. 18 of 1949. CO 684/7; Uganda Protectorate, An Ordinance to provide for the Registration and Control of Alliens, No. 23 of 1949. CO 684/7; Uganda Protectorate, An Ordinance to amend the Immigration (Control) Ordinance, No. 8 of 1953. CO 684/9; Uganda Protectorate, An Ordinance to Amend the Immigration (Control) Ordinance, No. 7 of 1954. CO 684/9. See also, A. Kiapi, “The Legal Status of Refugees in Uganda: A Critical Study of Legislative Instruments.” Paper presented at the Makerere Institute of Social Research, December 20, 1993:1–2.

  184. 184.

    See contribution to debates on Tutsi immigrants by the Chief Secretary, in Uganda Protectorate, Proceedings of the Legislative Council, 1959: 170–173. See also, Otunnu, “Rwandese Refugees and Immigrants in Uganda”: 3–30; Kiapi, “The Legal Status of Refugees in Uganda: A Critical Study of Legislative Instruments”: 9.

  185. 185.

    See the contribution to the debates by the Chief Secretary, Sir Charles Hartwell, and the Minister of Natural Resources, A. B. Killick, in Uganda Protectorate, Proceedings of the Legislative Council, 1959: 170–173, 190–193.

  186. 186.

    See contribution to the debates by Obote in Uganda Protectorate, Proceedings of the Legislative Council, 1959: Ibid: 164–166, 195. See also, Otunnu, “Rwandese Refugees and Immigrants in Uganda”: 3–30.

  187. 187.

    See contribution to the debates by A.G. Bazanyamaso in Uganda Protectorate, Proceedings of the Legislative Council, 1959: 170. Some 7,000 Polish refugees, mainly women and children, were resettled in Nyabyeya (Masindi District) and Koja (Mpunge, Mukono District) between 1942 and 1945. Italian POWs were resettled in Jinja and Italian civil internees were resettled in Entebbe. Most of the Italians were brought from Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somaliland. Some Germans, Austrians, Romanians, Bulgarians, Yugoslavs, Hungarians and stateless Jews were settled at the Arapai camps, near Soroti. See, S. Lwanga-Lunyiigo, “Uganda’s Long Connection with the Problem of Refugees: From the Polish Refugees of World War II to the Present.” Paper presented at the Makerere Institute of Social Research, December 20, 1993.

  188. 188.

    See Uganda Protectorate, Proceedings of the Legislative Council, 1959: 195–6.

  189. 189.

    See Lemarchand, Rwanda and Burundi: 150–151, 160, 196.

  190. 190.

    See Uganda Protectorate, Uganda Legislative Council Elections, 1961. Entebbe: The Government Printer, 1961, especially: 1–23; Otunnu, “Rwandese Refugees and Immigrants in Uganda”: 3–30.

  191. 191.

    See Otunnu, “Rwandese Refugees and Immigrants in Uganda”: 3–30; Lemarchand, Rwanda and Burundi: 208.

  192. 192.

    Lemarchand, Rwanda and Burundi: Ibid.

  193. 193.

    Ibid.

  194. 194.

    Cited in Ibid.

  195. 195.

    See Weekly News, Dar es Salaam, 8 November, 1963: 3, cited in A. R. Sekiki, “The Social Problems and Political Predicament of Refugees.” Master’s thesis, University of Dar es Salaam, March 1972: 11–12.

  196. 196.

    See Otunnu, “Rwandese Refugees and Immigrants in Uganda”: 3–30; Sekiki, “The Social Problems and Political Predicament of Refugees”: 12–3; Uganda Protectorate, Proceedings of the National Assembly. Part III. Entebbe: Government Printer, 1962: 515–575; Africa Research Bulletin, August 1–31, 1968: 1155A; O. Otunnu, “Refugee Movements from the Sudan: An Overview Analysis,” Refuge 13, 8 (January, 1994): 4–5, 7–8.

  197. 197.

    See Otunnu, “Rwandese Refugees and Immigrants in Uganda”: 3–30; Uganda Protectorate, Proceedings of the National Assembly. Entebbe: The Government Printer, September, 1962: 438–9.

  198. 198.

    Uganda Government, Uganda, 1962–1963. Entebbe: The Government Printer, 1964: 32.

  199. 199.

    See Otunnu, “Rwandese Refugees and Immigrants in Uganda”: 3–30; Helle-Valle, “Banyarwanda in Uganda”: 138–140; E. D. Mushemeza, “Refugees and International Relations: A Case of Uganda and Her Nieghbours, 1960–1990.” Paper presented at the Makerere Institute of Social Research, December 20, 1993: 21.

  200. 200.

    Dorothea Hunter, “Report of Visits in East Africa, August–September 1968,” (deposited at the Refugee Studies Programme, Oxford University): 1. See also, Assistant Director of Refugees in the Ministry of Culture and Community Development, S. K. Katenta Apuli, to Oxfam, Oxford, “Proposed Request for Assistance for Refugee Settlements, May 22, 1969,” (deposited at the Refugee Studies Programme, Oxford University): 1–4; The Adviser on Zonal Rural Development, Oxfam, T. F. Betts, “Request Settlement in Uganda, August 18, 1967,” (deposited at the Refugee Studies Programme, Oxford University); L. Capplelletti (U.N. Deputy Resident Representative, U.N.D.P), A. T. Nielsen (Representative, U.N.H.C.R.) and T. F. Betts (Adviser on Zonal Rural Development, Oxfam), “Memorandum: Sudanese Refugees—Uganda, Kampala, June 25, 1969,” (deposited at the Refugee Studies Programme, Oxford University): 1–4; T. F. Betts, “Sudanese Refugees—Northern Uganda, June 21, 1969,” (deposited at the Refugee Studies Programme, Oxford University): 1–2; M. Harper (Field Director, Oxfam), “UGA 16A/8901—Sudanese Refugees in Uganda, May 30, 1969,” (deposited at the Refugee Studies Programme, Oxford University): 1–6; African Refugee Secretary, World Alliance of YMCA, “Report of Visits to the Refugee Settlements of Uganda, November 27, 1969,” (deposited at the Refugee Studies Programme, Oxford University); S. K. Katenta Apuli, Ministry of Culture and Community Development, “Request for Assistance in Refugee Settlements, May 23, 1969,” (deposited at the Refugee Studies Programme, Oxford University).

  201. 201.

    See Africa Research Bulletin, (March, 1964): 37A.

  202. 202.

    Ibid.

  203. 203.

    See Uganda Government, Uganda, 1962–1963: 32–33.

  204. 204.

    Hunter, “Report of Visits to East Africa, August–September 1968,” (deposited at the Refugee Studies Programme, Oxford University); Assistant Director of Refugees in the Ministry of Culture and Community Development, Apuli, “Proposed Request for Assistance from Oxfam,” (deposited at the Refugee Studies Programme); Adviser on Zonal Rural Development, Oxfam, T Betts, “Request Settlement in Uganda,” (deposited at the Refugee Studies Programme, Oxford university); Capplelletti (U.N.D.P), Nielsen (U.N.H.C.R.) and Betts (Oxfam), “Memorandum: Sudanese Refugees—Uganda,” (deposited at the Refugee Studies Programme, Oxford University); Betts, “Sudanese Refugees—Northern Uganda,” (deposited at the Refugee Studies Programme, Oxford University); Harper (Field Director, Oxfam), “UGA 16A/8901—Sudanese Refugees in Uganda,” (deposited at the Refugee Studies Programme, Oxford University); African Refugee Secretary, World Alliance of YMCA, “Report of Visits to Refugee Settlements in Uganda made by the YMCA African Refugee Secretary with Special Reference to the work being undertaken by the YMCA Agricultural Field Assistants,” (deposited at the Refugee Studies Programme, Oxford University).

  205. 205.

    See Otunnu, “Rwandese Refugees and Immigrants in Uganda”: 3–30; Lemarchand, Rwanda and Burundi: 208–209; E. Nabuguzi, “Refugees and Politics in Uganda.” Paper presented at the Makerere Institute of Social Research, December 20, 1993: 18; The Organization of African Unity Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa, 1969: Article III.

  206. 206.

    See Uganda Government, Uganda, 1964. Entebbe: The Government Printer, 1965: 18–9.

  207. 207.

    See Otunnu, “Rwandese Refugees and Immigrants in Uganda”: 3–30; Lemarchand, Rwanda and Burundi: 206–7.

  208. 208.

    Lemarchand, Rwanda and Burundi: 209.

  209. 209.

    See Africa Research Bulletin, December 1–31, 1964: 203C–204A. See also, Kiapi, “The Legal Status of Refugees in Uganda”: 10–13.

  210. 210.

    See Otunnu, “Rwandese Refugees and Immigrants in Uganda”: 3–30; Lemarchand, Rwanda and Burundi: 209–227; Karrim Essack, Civil War in Rwanda. Dar es Salaam: Forem Litho Printers, n.d: 6.

  211. 211.

    See Lemarchand, Rwanda and Burundi: 211.

  212. 212.

    See A. I. Richards, ed. Economic Development and Tribal Change: A Study of Immigrant Labour in Buganda. Cambridge: Heffer & Sons, 1952: 196.

  213. 213.

    Ibid: 197.

  214. 214.

    See Karugire, A Political History of Uganda: 73–4.

  215. 215.

    Helle-Valle, “Banyarwanda in Uganda”: 145–146, 155; Respondents No. 24, five Rwandese refugees, interview with author, Mbarara, July 3, 1983; Respondents No. 25, interview by author, eight Uganda Banyarwanda/Bafumbira and three Rwandese refugees, Kisoro, August 9, 1983; Respondents No. 1, 20 former members of District Council and 31 ordinary Ugandans, Gulu, Jinja, Mbarara and Soroti, June–August, 1984.

  216. 216.

    For the policy of Ugandanization of employment and land ownership, see, for example, A. M. Obote, The Common Man’s Charter. Entebbe: Government Printer, 1970.

  217. 217.

    Sathyamurthy, The Political Development of Uganda: 1900–1986: 439; Africa Research Bulletin, June 1–30, 1966: 552C; Africa Research Bulletin, May 1–31, 1966: 532C.

  218. 218.

    Tito Okello, interview by author, Nairobi, July 25, 1992; Omara-Otunnu, Politics and the Military in Uganda: 50.

  219. 219.

    Omara-Otunnu, Politics and the Military in Uganda: 50.

  220. 220.

    Tito Okello, interview by author, Nairobi, July 25, 1992; Ingham, Obote: 92–3; Africa Research Bulletin, May 1–31, 1964: 75A; Omara-Otunnu, Politics and the Military in Uganda: 52–3.

  221. 221.

    Omara-Otunnu, Politics and the Military in Uganda: 54–59; Tito Okello, interview by author, July 23, 1992.

  222. 222.

    Tito Okello, interview by author, July 23, 1992; Ingham, Obote: 92–3; Africa Research Bulletin, May 1–31, 1964: 75A.

  223. 223.

    Tito Okello, interview by author, Nairobi, July 23, 1992; Omara-Otunnu, Politics and the Military in Uganda: 59–62.

  224. 224.

    Ibingira, “Human Rights Violations Excesses,”: 6; Uganda Government, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Violations of Human Rights: 521, 525–6.

  225. 225.

    Tito Okello, Commander of the Defence Forces (CDF), conversation with author, Nakasero, Kampala, March 15, 1983; Ingham, Obote: 92.

  226. 226.

    See Omara Otunnu, Politics and the Military in Uganda: 54–64.

  227. 227.

    Tito Okello, conversation with author, April 2, 1983; Tito Okello, interview by author, Nairobi, July 23, 1992.

  228. 228.

    See Uganda Government, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Violations of Human Rights: 371–2, 524–5; Ingham, Obote: 91, 132; Africa Research Bulletin, July 1–31, 1964: 112C.

  229. 229.

    Tito Okello, interview by author, Nairobi, July 23, 1992; Uganda Government, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Violations of Human Rights: 524–5.

  230. 230.

    Respondents No. 26, Brigadier Basilio (Brigade Commander of the 10th Brigade), Major Opwonya (Director of Signal Communication) and Major Dr. Kweya (Director of Medical Services), conversation with author, Kololo, Kampala, May 2, 1985; Uganda Government, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Violations of Human Rights: 521, 525–6; Omara-Otunnu, Politics and the Military in Uganda: 60, 62; Africa Research Bulletin, July 1–31, 1964: 110C–111A; September 1–30, 1964: 147C.

  231. 231.

    Respondents No. 26; Obote, Myths and Realities: 20–7; Adoko, Uganda Crisis: 2–4; Africa Research Bulletin, August 1–31, 1966: 593C.

  232. 232.

    See Major General Maruru’s testimony, Uganda Government, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Violations of Human Rights: 525–6.

  233. 233.

    See Major General Maruru’s testimony, Uganda Government, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Violations of Human Rights: 525–6.

  234. 234.

    Respondents No. 26, Brigadier Basilio, Major Opwonya and Major Dr. Kweya, Kololo, Kampala, May 2, 1985; Lieutenant-General, Basilio Okello, Commander of the Defence Forces (CDF), interview by author, Kampala, September 3, 1985.

  235. 235.

    See Obote, Myths and Realities: 20–27; Africa Research Bulletin, August 1–31, 1966: 593C; Africa Research Bulletin, October 1–31, 1966: 640AB.

  236. 236.

    Respondents No. 26, Brigadier Basilio, Major Opwonya and Major Dr. Kweya, Kololo, Kampala, May 2, 1985; Adoko, Uganda Crisis: 62.

  237. 237.

    The People, cited in “Uganda-Outside and in,” Africa Confidential, 25 (December 22, 1967): 8.

  238. 238.

    Brigadier Ali Fadul, former Acting Chief of Staff and Governor of Northern Province, interview by author, Moyo, October 7, 1985; Adoko, Uganda Crisis: 22.

  239. 239.

    Tito Okello, conversation with author, Nakasero, May 4, 1983; Tito Okello, interview by author, July 25, 1992; Respondents No. 17.

  240. 240.

    Tito Okello, interview by author, July 25, 1992; Respondents No. 17, six former senior UNLA officers, London, December 8, 1994. For a discussion of the clash between Acoli and Lango District Councils, and between Acoli and the Central government, see, Gertzel, “The Politics of Underdevelopment”: 19. See also, Lt. Col. F. Agwa, “Did the UPC, Dr. Obote and Langi Kill the Okoyas and Omoya?” Press release, London, February 27, 1994. This press release refuted the theories that Obote was involved in the assassinations of the two high-ranking Acoli soldiers.

  241. 241.

    See Uganda Government, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Violations of Human Rights: 24–6.

  242. 242.

    See Adoko, Uganda Crisis: 22.

  243. 243.

    Tito Okello, interview by author, Nairobi, July 25, 1992; Basilio, interview by author, September 3, 1985. Obote’s own account is contained in Ingham, Obote: 134–5.

  244. 244.

    “Uganda: Outline of the New Constitution,” NEFA Bulletin: 4; Obote, Myths and Realities: 26, 30; Ingham, Obote: 111–3, 119, 121–2.

  245. 245.

    See Obote’s Address to the Students at Makerere University,“ reprinted in Uganda Argus, Thoughts of an African Leader. Kampala: Longman, 1970: 38–9.

  246. 246.

    Hopkins, “Non-aligned”, cited in Uganda Argus, Thoughts of an African Leader. 65.

  247. 247.

    See Omara-Otunnu, Politics and the Military in Uganda: 92–101; O. Otunnu, “Refugee Movements from the Sudan: An Overview Analysis,” Refuge, 13, 8 (January, 1994): 7; Mamdani, Imperialism and Fascism in Uganda: 30; Refugee Policy Group, Older Refugee Settlements in Africa. Washington, D.C.: RPG, 1985: 126.

  248. 248.

    Omara-Otunnu, Politics and the Military in Uganda: 92–101; Mamdani, Imperialism and Fascism in Uganda: 31.

  249. 249.

    See New York Times, July 17, 1976: 3.

  250. 250.

    Cited in Mamdani, Imperialism and Fascism in Uganda: 31.

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    Ogenga Otunnu

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Otunnu, O. (2016). The Obote Regime and Political Violence, 1962–1971. In: Crisis of Legitimacy and Political Violence in Uganda, 1890 to 1979. African Histories and Modernities. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33156-0_4

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