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Normative Conflicts in Bangladesh: Nature/Forest Conservation, Corporate Interests and the Politics of Co-management

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Negotiating Normativity

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Abstract

The proposed chapter will undertake a critique of the co-management approach to nature/forest conservation that supposedly ensures the participation of all relevant stakeholders (i.e. state actors, local communities, NGOs, and business enterprises) in nature/forest conservation projects for “sustainable development.” The co-management approach is theoretically guided by the principle of “learning-by-doing” and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is the leading global organization that promotes this approach for conserving nature/forests.

I argue that the co-management approach is very much apolitical and thus ignores the reality of the power relationship that always exists among the participating stakeholders. However, it is exposed when the implementation of such an approach to nature/forest conservation involves financially influential business actors like Chevron in the case I analyze. In such cases, business interests prevail over nature/forest conservation. And as a result, “sustainable development” becomes a mere pretext; the state and other non-state actors become legitimacy-providers to the whole process.

I critique this co-management approach in light of a case study on the Chevron-IUCN business partnership in Bangladesh for conducting a seismic survey in the ecologically sensitive and legally protected Lawachara National Park where the existing forest laws of the country were violated. In terms of methodology, the proposed chapter is largely based on ethnographic research. I have also made use of official e-mails and relevant documents exchanged between Chevron and the IUCN in connection with the seismic survey at the Lawachara National Park.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The employment of the German botanist Dietrich Brandis as a forester in the British Imperial Forestry Service in colonial India in 1856, the Forest and Harbiage Protection Act (1859) adopted by the Cape Colony of Southern Africa, and the publication of the influential book Man and Nature: Or, Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action (1864) by George Perkins Marsh, played a key role in centralizing scientific forest management (Guha 2000: 25–33).

  2. 2.

    It was established in 1945 with the belief that humanity’s moral and intellectual solidarity provide the basis for international peace. It is known as the intellectual agency of the United Nations.

  3. 3.

    It was set up in 1948 for helping the world find ‘pragmatic solutions’ for tackling environmental and developmental challenges. It has 1300 government and NGO members and more than 15,000 volunteer experts representing 180 countries with a special observer status at United Nations General Assembly (for details see: http://www.iucn.org/).

  4. 4.

    The oil and energy entrepreneur and president of the Power Corporation of Canada, Maurice Strong, who was secretary of the UN Conference on the Human Environment, convinced the developing ‘Southern’ countries to take part as it had the avowed goal of recognizing the link between nature, conservation and development (Khan and Lynch: 108).

  5. 5.

    For discussion of Hardin’s assumptions and historical ignorance, see (Martinez 2007).

  6. 6.

    In 1966, the IUCN classified protected areas into national parks, scientific reserves, and national monuments. Later, it expanded the categories to ten types of protected areas: (1) scientific reserves, (2) national parks, (3) natural monuments/national landmarks, (4) nature conservation reserves, (5) protected landscapes, (6) resource reserves, (7) anthropological reserves, (8) multiple use management areas, (9) biosphere reserves and (10) world heritage sites. The first five categories became part of the UN list of protected areas and the sixth one was added in IUCN’s 1994 categorization, which now includes both marine and territorial spaces to indicate the areas for sustainable resource use. The bottom five classifications of the protected areas introduced in 1978 fall within the sustainable-use category (Brockington et al. 2008: 21–23).

  7. 7.

    CPR is founded on the assumption that actors are utility maximizers. It defines participation in a narrow sense, and treats users with long-term tenure rights as stakeholders (Sandstrom 2009: 231–232) Elinor Ostrom pioneered CPR for resource governance (see Ostrom 1990).

  8. 8.

    This perspective borrows heavily from constructivism to argue that institutions are independent variables offering a political and cultural and strategic environment. It treats actors as part of a whole and assumes they progress simultaneously with the surroundings. Participation is defined from a broader perspective. The co-management approach is an arena for “deliberative problem solving” which requires participation of all actors affected by the resource management decision (Sandstrom 2009: 232–233).

  9. 9.

    Chevron Bangladesh is the subsidiary of the California-based multinational energy company, Chevron Corporation. Chevron Corporation is operating in more than 180 countries to explore and produce hydrocarbon resources. It originally started its business in 1876 under the name Pico Canyon, later became Standard Oil Company, and finally Chevron. In Bangladesh, it is the largest natural gas producer. It supplies 50 % of the gas produced for overall consumption, operating the Bibiyana, Jalalabad and Moulavi Bazar gas fields under production-sharing contracts signed with PetroBangla, a state-owned Energy Company in Bangladesh.

  10. 10.

    The Washington-based International Resources Group (IRG) was the main implementing and consulting agency for the project. Winrock International has currently replaced them. The other local and national NGOs that took part in the various stages of its operation include Nature Conservation and Management, Wildlife Trust Bangladesh (WTB), Community Development Centre (CODEC), Center for Natural Resources Studies (CNRS), Bangladesh Environmental Lawyers Association (BELA).

  11. 11.

    A seismic survey is performed by producing acoustic pulses through explosions from a source on or beneath the surface for the measurement of acoustic waves reflected off the boundaries between rock strata using specialized recording devices (geophones) situated at various positions on the surface. The initial shots and subsequent return signals are recorded onto magnetic tape for detailed analysis at a later date and allow the surveyor to pinpoint gas and oil reserves beneath the surface depending on the physical nature of the surface strata (Bakht et al. 2010: 4–5). Access roads are required for heavy equipment, survey lines, and drilling sites. The technique can cause physical damage to the habitat, including deforestation, de-vegetation, erosion and watercourse siltation, and disrupted drainage patterns.

  12. 12.

    It refers to self-regulatory initiatives undertaken by the corporation to measure and take responsibility for its impact of activities on environmental and social well-being. This concept of CSR came into being in the 1960s. Some business enterprises, for implementing CSR, prefer “actions that appear to further some social good, beyond the interests of the firm and that which is required by law” (McWilliams and Donald 2001: 117).

  13. 13.

    The United States Assistance for International Development (USAID) has been financing and the Forest Department (FD) of Bangladesh ‘administering’ the project from the days of its inception. Chemonics International originally designed the 18-year-long project and recommended the incorporation of a co-management approach for its implementation in their consultancy reports prepared for USAID (Chemonics International 2001; USAID 2003). Apart from the Nishorgo phase (2003–2008), this project went through two more phases afterwards in its operational cycle: Integrated Protected Areas Co-management (IPAC) (2008–2012) and Climate-Resilient Ecosystems and Livelihoods (CREL) (2013–2018).

  14. 14.

    Other sites were Satchari National Park and Rema-Kalenga Wildlife Sanctuary of Habiganj, Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary of Chittagong, Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary (once called Teknaf Game Reserve) of Teknaf.

  15. 15.

    It provides for writing off outstanding USAID and Public Law (PL)-480 debts of the countries, worth of USD 13 billion. PL-480, also known as Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act (1954), provides a solution for food-deficient, financially insolvent countries. It allows them to import food from the USA in their own national currencies. The Tropical Forest Conservation Act, signed by President Clinton in 1998, has three ways of doing it: buy-backs, third-party swaps, and reductions. All these three mechanisms require the creation of local currency funds for tropical forest conservation (Chemonics International 2001: H-2, Annex-H).

  16. 16.

    The Steering Committee consists of fifteen members: A secretary and joint secretary represent the MoEF in the committee. The secretary is to chair the Committee while the deputy chief (planning) is to act as member secretary and project director. The government notification for the formation of the Committee was signed and circulated by the deputy secretary on 1 September 2003. Other members include representatives (not below the ranks of joint secretary, director general and joint chief) from other relevant ministries and departments of the government.

  17. 17.

    In a reserve forest, according to Article 26 (1) of the 1927 Forest Act (Amended) promulgated during the British colonial period, a number of human activities are prohibited. Some of those are: kindling or carrying fire, trespassing or pasturing cattle, making fresh clear felling, hunting, shooting, fishing, poisoning water or setting traps. However, in protected forests, certain activities are permitted. For example, the government issues licenses to the local inhabitants and the traders to fell trees or timber and other forest resources for their own use and for the purpose of trading.

  18. 18.

    For Rema-Kalenga, these were difficulties in the resolution of settlement problems, limited tourism potential, and problems of open access (Chemonics International 2002: 21). For Chunati and the Teknaf Game Reserve, these were the uncontrolled harvesting of forest resources, extensive livestock grazing, and the absence of any specific management activities by the FD (ibid.: 30–31 & 33).

  19. 19.

    Articles 7 and 9 of the draft proposal allowed the hunting of wild animals for, among other reasons, scientific research and when it is “necessary in the interest of scientific or any public purpose.”Article 18 of the draft also authorizes access to and setting up residence in a sanctuary in the name of “scientific research,” “ecotourism,” and for public purposes, among other things without offering any definition of those terms.

  20. 20.

    Article 19 (1) of the draft proposal legally permits the Chief Wildlife Warden to construct any infrastructure necessary for the better management of sanctuaries. S/he can even undertake commercial ventures like commercial tourist lodges, hotels, zoos, eco-parks and safari parks inside a sanctuary when given consent from the local community and approval of the wildlife board and conducting an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). It further authorizes the government to promote collaborative management for which it can issue relevant rules and form collaborative management councils/committees through gazette notifications.

  21. 21.

    In the Lawachara Park and its adjacent West Bhanugach reserve forest, a total of 700 shot holes were drilled in 11 survey lines (IUCN Bangladesh 2008: 42). The seismic survey started in January 2008 and ended in June 2008. The seismic survey in the Lawachara and Bhanughach parts began in March of the same year and was completed in May.

  22. 22.

    Memo No. DoE/Clearance/2763/2007/2793. This memo is not publicly available. In fact several key-informants at the concerned departments and organizations provided the certificates and other seismic survey related documents for research conducted for this chapter.

  23. 23.

    The DoE Environment issued the invitation letter for the presentation bearing reference no. DOE/Clearance Committee/2763/2007/2698 dated 8 October 2008 for the meeting. Among others, the chief conservator of forest (CCF) of the FD, the chairman of Petro-Bangla (Bangladesh Oil, Gas and Mineral Corporation), the country representative of the IUCN Bangladesh, the president and managing director of Chevron Bangladesh Blocks Thirteen and Fourteen Ltd., were invited to attend the session.

  24. 24.

    Paragraph 1 of the Site Clearance Certificate.

  25. 25.

    The president of Chevron Bangladesh Blocks Thirteen and Fourteen Ltd confirmed the holding of this meeting in his letter of thanks sent to the director general of the Department of Environment dated 15 November 2007.

  26. 26.

    Paragraph 3 of the Site Clearance Certificate.

  27. 27.

    Paragraphs 2 and 3 of the Site Clearance Certificate.

  28. 28.

    Paragraph 4 of the Site Clearance Certificate.

  29. 29.

    It was signed by the president of the Company dated 15 November 2007.

  30. 30.

    It reads: “Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, the Government may, in the interest of scientific or any public purpose, allow, by notification in the official Gazette, killing or capturing of any wild animal in such place and by such means as may be specified in the notification” [emphasis added].

  31. 31.

    Chevron submitted the report on 7 December 2007. It was mentioned in an e-mail exchange between an official of the Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation (SMEC) International Pvy. Ltd. Australia and an officer of the IUCN on 7 December 2007. SMEC was the contractor for providing services for the Initial Environmental Examination (IEE), EIA and Environmental Social and Health Impact Assessment (ESHIA) Study for the 3-D Seismic Survey in Moulvibazar Gas Field.

  32. 32.

    Memo No. DoE/Clearance/2763/2007/545, dated 24 February 2008.

  33. 33.

    A concerned IUCN officer disclosed this on 23 February 2008in his e-mail correspondence with an officer working at the regional office of the IUCN at Bangkok, Thailand. He did so two days before the formal issuance of the Environmental Clearance Certificate by the FD.

  34. 34.

    According to Paragraph 5M2.1 of the Environmental Clearance Certificate.

  35. 35.

    SMEC and Chevron signed the business contract on 1 May 2007.

  36. 36.

    It was done in a meeting of the District Land Allocation Committee, held on 29 July 2010. Other members of the committee are upazilla nirbahi (sub-district executive) officers of Srimangal and Kamalganj; divisional forest officer (DFO), Wildlife and Nature Conservation Circle, Moulvibazar; deputy director, Department of Environment, Sylhet; assistant conservator of forest, Srimangal; representative of Petro-Bangla; officers in Charge of Srimangal and Kamalganj police stations.

  37. 37.

    The letter was issued 22 June 2010; with a reference no. (১২৪.১০.২৫)অংশ-১/৩২৩[(124.10.25) part-1/323].

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of International Relations, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh

    Mohammad Tanzimuddin Khan

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Correspondence to Mohammad Tanzimuddin Khan .

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  1. University of Innsbruck, Austria

    Nikita Dhawan

  2. Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Hessen, Germany

    Elisabeth Fink

  3. Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Hessen, Germany

    Johanna Leinius

  4. Goethe University, Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Hessen, Germany

    Rirhandu Mageza-Barthel

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Khan, M.T. (2016). Normative Conflicts in Bangladesh: Nature/Forest Conservation, Corporate Interests and the Politics of Co-management. In: Dhawan, N., Fink, E., Leinius, J., Mageza-Barthel, R. (eds) Negotiating Normativity. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-30984-2_14

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