Abstract
In its most general sense, culture is “the whole complex of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual, and emotional features that characterize a society or social group. It includes not only the arts and letters, but also modes of life, the fundamental rights of the human being, value systems, traditions, and beliefs.” It is through culture that one recognizes and expresses her/himself. This is the point that the issue of “Identity,” “Cultural Identity,” and also “National Identity” forms and matters, for “every culture represents a unique and irreplaceable body of values since each people’s tradition and forms of expression are its most effective means of demonstrating its presence in the world.” As Craig Calhoun, sociologist mentions: “We know of no people without names, no languages or cultures in which some manner of distinctions between self and other, we and they, are not made.” Identity leads an individual or a group to the certain position in the social world. It defines that one/group belongs to what, whom, when, and where, while designates what is not. Through identity people define themselves and are defined by others on the basis of race, ethnicity, religion, language, and culture. Identity, therefore, is a concept which combines the inner or personal world with collective space of cultural forms and social relationships. In other words, and from a sociological point of view, although identity is something foundational and essential, “all identities are constructed.” Various causes and backgrounds are involved in constructing identity which poses several arguments depending on each person or nation. Identity can be produced through assembling various memories, experiences, episodes, etc. The permanence and revival of all these issues depend on their process of narration. “Identity produced through the narratives people use to explain and understand their lives.” Thus identity is made up through making a story out of a life and the way it is interpreted continually. According to philosopher Paul Ricoeur:
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Notes
- 1.
UNESCO (1982) Mexico City Declaration on Cultural Policies World Conference on Cultural Policies. Mexico City, 26 July–6 August 1982. http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/12762/11295421661mexico_en.pdf/mexico_en.pdf. Accessed 24 October 2014.
- 2.
Ibid.
- 3.
Calhoun C (eds) (1994) Social Theory and the Politics of Identity. Blackwell, Oxford.
- 4.
Hogg M, Abrams D (1988) Social Identification, A Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations and Group Processes. Routledge, London, p. 2.
- 5.
Deng FM (1995) War of Visions: Conflict of Identities in the Sudan. Brookings, Washington, DC, p. 1.
- 6.
Lawler S (2008) Identity Sociological Perspectives. Polity Press, Cambridge, p. 17.
- 7.
Castells M (2010) The Power of Identity, Second Edition (with a new preface).Wiley-Blackwell, UK, p. 7.
- 8.
Lawler S (2008) Identity Sociological Perspectives. Polity Press, Cambridge, p. 17.
- 9.
Ibid., p. 11, 17.
- 10.
Recoeur P (1991) Narrative Identity. In Wood D (eds) (1991), On Paul Recoeur: Narrative and Interpretation (trans: D. Wood). Routledge, London, p. 198.
- 11.
Hacking I (1995) Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Science of Memory. Princeton University Press , Princeton, NJ, p. 251.
- 12.
Hacking I (1994) Memoro-politics, trauma and the soul. History of the Human Sciences 7(2): 29–52.
- 13.
Kanteiner W (2002) Finding meaning in Memory: A Methodological Critique of Collective Memory Studies. History and Theory 41: 179–197, p. 180
- 14.
Gillis J (1994) Memory and Identity: The History of a Relationship. In Gillis J (eds) (1994) Commemorations. Princeton University Press, Princeton, p. 7.
- 15.
Assmann J, Czaplicka J (1995) Collective Memory and Cultural Identity. New German Critique 65: 125–133, (Spring—Summer 1995), p.127.
- 16.
Ibid.
- 17.
Kanteiner W (2002) Finding meaning in Memory: A Methodological Critique of Collective Memory Studies. History and Theory 41: 179–197, p. 182.
- 18.
Assmann J, Czaplicka J (1995) Collective Memory and Cultural Identity. New German Critique 65: 125–133, (Spring—Summer 1995), p. 130.
- 19.
Rajaee F (2003) Moshkele-ye Howiat-e Iranian-e Emrooz, Eefay-e Naghsh dar Assr-e Yek Tamaddon wa Chand Frahng. Nashre Nay, Tehran, p. 12.
- 20.
Vejdani F (2012) Preface. In Amanat A, Vejdani F (eds) (2012) Iran Facing Others. Identity Boundaries in a Historical Perspective. Palgrave Macmillan, New York, p. ix.
- 21.
Most of the new generation in Iran has no mentality about or no sympathy for what had happened during the previous decades which had influenced their today’s situation. Although their parents and grandparents have experienced the Iran–Iraq war (1980–1988) and especially their fathers had participated and injured in that war, they are not interested in knowing anything about their parents’ experience. On the other hand, there are few proper books or data to encourage or persuade them to gain some knowledge about their history of about 3 decades ago and in case of those who are eager to know their recent past, available information are insufficient.
- 22.
It has to be mentioned that the main reason for foreign scholars’ interest in Iranian studies such as Iranian language and civilization is related to the studies in Indo-European linguistics and the translation of the Avesta in the late eighteenth century in France and Germany, Britain’s domination on India and the importance of Persian (Farsi) as the administrative language in that country during nineteenth century, and the issue of Aryan race and Aryanism in the early decades of the twentieth century and the intention made by German scholars into the importance of Iran in the history of Aryan civilization.
- 23.
There are over 50 centers and institutes worldwide in 76 countries, which related to the Iranian Studies. There are few centers in Iran focused on the study of Iranian culture and civilization. Bonyad-e Farhang-e Iran (Institute for the Culture of Iran) was one of the first centers in Iran established in 1964. The aim of this institute was to promote Iranian culture, preserve and further Iran’s cultural heritage, make efforts to refine, develop, and disseminate the Persian language, and introduce Iranian culture to other nations. It was only in the 1997 that Bonyad-e Iranshenasi (Iranology Foundation) had established. For more information see, Tafazzoli A (1990) Bonyad-e Farhang-e Iran. Encyclopædia Iranica IV(4): 358–359. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bonyad-farhang-iran. Accessed 6 May 2015.
- 24.
Ahmand A (2006) Iranian Identity i. Perspectives. Encyclopædia Iranica XIII(5): 501–504. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iranian-identity-i-perspectives. Accessed 17 August 2014.
- 25.
Ibid.
- 26.
Boroujerdi M (1998) Contesting National Constructions of Iranian Identity. Journal for Critical Studies of the Middle East 12 (spring). http://faculty.maxwell.syr.edu/mborouje/Documents/English/Iranian%20Identity.htm. Accessed 18 August 2014.
- 27.
Ashraf A (1993) The Crisis of National and Ethnic Identities in Contemporary Iran. Iranian Studies 26(½) (Winter-Spring): 159–164, p. 160.
- 28.
From the early years of nineteenth century, Iran occupied with the issue of Napoleonic policy in the East which resulted in Russo-Persian Wars as territorial disputes (1804–1818/1826–1828), vicissitudinous relationship with Britain due to British competition with France and Russia for interests in India and the Persian Gulf. For more information, see Avery P, Hambly G, Melville C (eds) (1991) The Cambridge History of Iran (Vol. 7): From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 314–425.
- 29.
Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzadeh (1812–1878), born in Azarbaijan and spent most of his life in Tiflis, was the playwright and propagator of alphabet reform. He was proud of being from Persian stock (nežād-e Irāni), belonging to the nation of Iran (mellat-e Irān) and to the Iranian homeland (waṭan). For more information see, Algar H. Akundzada. Encyclopædia Iranica I/7: 735–740. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/akundzada-playwright. Accessed 17 August 2014.
- 30.
Jalal al-Din Mirza (1827–1872) born as prince at the court of Tehran as one of Fath Ali Shah Qajar son who influenced by European culture, became a historian and freethinker, critic of the Qajar government. He wrote a history textbook called Nāma-ye Khosravān (Book of the Monarchs), as the first history textbook for Dār-al-Fonun about the Iranian pre-Islamic past, written in “pure Persian” prose shorn of Arabic loanwords with the aim of restoring their greatness. He had been in correspondence with Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzadeh. For more information see, Amanat A, Vejdani F (2008) JALĀL-AL-DIN MIRZĀ. Encyclopædia Iranica XIV(4): 405–410. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/jalal-al-din-mirza. Accessed 17 August 2014.
- 31.
Mirzā Āqā Khan Kermāni (1854–1896), writer, intellectual and an outstanding example of a first-generation secular nationalist who wrote articles and books such as Ā’īna-ye Eskandarī, which its subject extends from the mythological past to the Qajar era, to compare and contrast Iran’s glorious past with its present plight. For more information see, Bayat M (1987) ĀQĀ KHAN KERMĀNĪ. Encyclopædia Iranica II(2): 175–177. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aqa-khan-kermani-iranian-writer-and-intellectual-d-1896. Accessed 17 August 2014; Mirzā Āqā Khan Kermāni (1906–1908) Ā’ina-ye sekandari. Tehran; Ādamīyat F (1967) Andīšahā-ye Mīrzā Āqā Khan Kermānī. Tehran.
- 32.
Bigdeloo R (2001) Bastangaraee dar Tarikh-e Moaser-e. Nashr-e Markaz, Tehran, p. 90.
- 33.
Ibid., pp. 118–131.
- 34.
Ashraf A (1993) The Crisis of National and Ethnic Identities in Contemporary Iran. Iranian Studies 26(½) (Winter-Spring): 159–164, p. 160.
- 35.
Ahmadi H (2011) Bonyadhay-e Howiat-e Melli-e Irani. Pajoheshkadeh Motaleat-e Farhangi wa Ejtemaee, Tehran, p. 167.
- 36.
Irānshahr 1340/192 (2):18.
- 37.
Kāzemzādeh H (1917) Tajalliyāt-e ruh-e irāni. Eghbāl Publication, Tehran, pp. 3–85.
- 38.
Shafiee Kadkani MR (1973) Talaqqi-e Qodamā az Watan. Alefbā 2:1-26, pp. 22–23.
- 39.
Afshār M (1989) Melliyat o Wahdat-e Melli. Ganjine-ye Maghāghālāt I: Maghālāt-e Siyāsi yā Siāsat-Nāme-ye Jadid, Tehran, p. 187.
- 40.
Ābedinee H (1990) Sad Sāl Dāstān Nevisee dar Iran. Tondar, Tehran, p. 29.
- 41.
German archeologist and Iranologist.
- 42.
Peerniā H (1928) Khotot-e Barjesteh Dāstānhā-ye Iran-e Ghadeem bā Zekr-e Madārek wa Natijeh Sanjesh wa Estenbātāt. Majlis, Tehran; Idem (1934) Iran-e Bāstān yā Tārikh-e Mofassal-e Iran-e Ghadeem. Vol. 3, Majlis, Tehran.
- 43.
He had translated various parts of Avestā. Some of his other works on Ancient Iran are as follows: Irānshāh, Tārikhcheh Mohā jerat-e Zartoshtian be Hendoostān, Anjoman-e Zartoshtiān-e Irani-e Bambai (1916); Khoramshāh, Anjoman-e Zartoshtiān-e Irani (1927); Frahang-e Iran-e Bāstān, Anjoman-e Iranshenashi (1947); Ānāhitā, Pnajāh Goftār-e Poordāwud (1964); Bijan wa Manijeh (1965).
- 44.
Ashraf A (2006) Iranian Identity iv. 19th–20th centuries. Encyclopædia Iranica XIII(5): 501–504. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iranian-identity-iv-19th-20th-centuries. Accessed 17 August 2014.
- 45.
Ahmadi H (2011) Bonyadhay-e Howiat-e Melli-e Irani. Pajoheshkadeh Motaleat-e Farhangi wa Ejtemaee, Tehran, pp. 167–168.
- 46.
His viewpoint will be discussed below. For more information see, Fragner BG (1999) Die “Persophonie”: Regionalität, Identität und Sprachkontakt in der Geschichte Asiens (Persophonia—regionalism, identity, and language contacts in the history of Asia). Halle an der Saale.
- 47.
For more information see, Anderson B (1991) Imagined Communities. Verso, London.
- 48.
Ashraf A (2006) Iranian Identity iv. 19th–20th centuries. Encyclopædia Iranica XIII(5): 501–504. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iranian-identity-iv-19th-20th-centuries. Accessed 17 August 2014.
- 49.
Ahmadi H (2011) Bonyadhay-e Howiat-e Melli-e Irani. Pajoheshkadeh Motaleat-e Farhangi wa Ejtemaee, Tehran, pp. 197–199.
- 50.
Brouujerdi divides the viewpoints on Iranian identity as religious view concentrated on Shiism and Non-religious focused on language and history. For more information see, Boroujerdi M (1988) Contesting Nationalist Construction of Iranian Identity. Critique: Journal for Critical Studies of the Middle East 12 (Spring 1998).
- 51.
Mashayekhi who has been influenced by Gellner thesis determines that nationalism is a new phenomena and what had been mentioned in old texts referring to Iran and Iranian had nothing to do with nationalism. Mashayekhi M (2007) Nahal-e Melligaraee dar Khak-e Ch. Baaztaab-e Andeesheh 89–90: 22–30.
- 52.
Bashiriyeh mentions that the main problem of Iranian national identity is its being ideological and using it by political regimes. Bashiriyeh H (2004) Ideology Siyasi wa Howiat-e Ejtemaee dar Iran. In Ahmadi H (eds), Iran: Howiat-e Mellat wa Ghomiat. Moassesseh Tosseeh Ulom-e Enssani, Tehran.
- 53.
Tajik has influenced by post-modern discourses and somehow the theory of globalization. Tajik MR (2004) Jahani Shodan wa Howiat. Howiat Melli wa Jahani Shodan, Moassesseh Tahghighat wa Tosseeh Ulom-e Enssani, Tehran.
- 54.
Vaziri M (1993) Iran as an Imagined National: the Construction of National Identity. Paragon House, New York
- 55.
Kachoian H (2007) Tataworat-e Goftemanhay-e Howiati-e Iran: Irani dar Keshakhesh ba Tajadod wa Mabaád-e Tajadod. Nashr-e Nay, Tehran.
- 56.
Sadr Z (1998) Kessrat-e Ghumi wa Howiat-e Melli-e Iranian. Andisheh Sara, Tehran.
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Altaee A (1999) Bohran-e Howiat-e Qawmi dar Iran. Shadegan, Tehran.
- 58.
Akbari MA (2009) Tabarshenassi-e Howiat-e Jadid-e Irani, Assr-e Qajariyeh wa Pahlavi-e Avval. Elmi wa Farhangi, Tehran.
- 59.
For glance at all these approaches see: Ahmadi H (2011) Bonyadhay-e Howiat-e Melli-e Irani. Pajoheshkadeh Motaleat-e Farhangi wa Ejtemaee, Tehran, pp. 214–238.
- 60.
Ahmand A (2006) Iranian Identity i. Perspectives. Encyclopædia Iranica XIII(5): 501–504. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iranian-identity-i-perspectives. Accessed 17 August 2014.
- 61.
Yarshater E (1983) Iranian National History. Cambridge History of Iran III(1): 359–477.
- 62.
Gnoli G (1989) The Idea of Iran: An Essay on Its Origin. SOR, LXII, Rome.
- 63.
Lambton AKS (1978) Ḳawmiyya iii: in Persia. EI ² IV: 785–790.
- 64.
Bausani A (1971) The Persians: from the earliest days to twentieth century. Elek Books Limited.
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Mottahedeh RP (1976) The Shoubiyah Controversy and the Social History of Early Islamic Iran. IJMES 7/2: 161–182.
- 66.
Morgan D (1992) Medieval Persia, 1040–1797. Longman, London and New York.
- 67.
Ādamiyat F (1967) Ideoloji-e Nāsionālism. In Andishahā-ye Mirzā Āqā Khān-e Kermāni. Tahoori, Tehran, pp. 246–268.
- 68.
Meskoob S (1994) Melligaraee, Tamarkoz wa Farhang dar Ghoroob-e Qajariyeh wa Tolou-e Pahlavi. Iran- Nameh 12(3): 479–508.
- 69.
Shafiee Kadkani MR (1973) Talaqqi-e Qodamā az Watan. Alefbā 2: 1–26.
- 70.
Tavakoli-Targhi M (2001). Refashioning Iran: Orientalism, Occidentalism and Historiography. Palgrave, New York, pp. 100–101.
- 71.
Sattari J (2001). Howiat-e Melli wa Howiat-e Farhangi: Bist Maghaleh dar Ghalamro-e Tarikh wa Farhang. Nashr-e Markaz, Tehran, pp. 108–109.
- 72.
Ibid., p. 113.
- 73.
Ibid., p. 115.
- 74.
Qarshi AA (2001) Iran Namak. Hermes, Tehran, pp. 368–376, 370–372.
- 75.
Jafary M (2007) Sayr-e Romantisism dar Iran. Nashr-e Markaz, Tehran.
- 76.
Dehshiri MR (2001) Tassir-e Tahawolat-e Siaysi-Ejtema’ee bar Howiat-e Farhangi-ye Iran-e Moaset. Nameh-ye Pejohesh-e Farhangi 22–23: 152–178.
- 77.
Yosufi A (2001) Rawabet-e Beyn-e Ghomi wa Tassir-e an bar Howiat-e Melli Aghwam dar Iran. Fasslnameh Motalea’t-e Melli 8: 11–42.
- 78.
Mir Muhammadi D (2004) Howiat-e Melli dar Iran. Moassesseh Motalea’t-e Melli, Tehran.
- 79.
Goodarzi H (2005) Goftarhaee Darbare-ye Jamea Shenassi-e Howiat dar Iran. Tamadon-e Irani, Tehran.
- 80.
Jafarian R (2002) Howiat-e Irani dar Keshakesh-e Tahawolat-e Siaysee-ye Iran dar Chahar Gharn-e Akheer. Moa’lefeha-ye Howiat-e Melli dar Iran. Pajoheshgah-e Olum-e Enssani wa Motalea’t-e Frahangi, Tehran, pp. 5–7.
- 81.
Ibid., p. 9.
- 82.
Ibid., p. 10.
- 83.
Available online. http://cfis.columbia.edu/iranian-studies-seminars/fall-2011-seminars?page=1.
- 84.
Ibid.
- 85.
As Seyed Sadegh Haghighat, the political scientist has mentioned “the Iranian identity has generated much controversy among the successive generations of modern intellectuals in Iran, particularly since the last decades of the nineteenth century when the question of national identity moved to the center stage of political discourse.” Available online. http://s-haghighat.ir/en/articles/art/1.pdf. Accessed 17 August 2014.
- 86.
Frye, RN (1993) Iranian Identity in Ancient Times. Iranian Studies. 26(½)(Winter-Spring): 143–146.
- 87.
Ashna, H, Roohani MR (2011) Howiat-e Farhangi-e Iranian az Roykardha-ye Nazare taa Moalefeha-ye Bonyadee. Faslnameh Tahgheeghaat-e Farhangee 3(12): 157–185, p. 161.
- 88.
Zahed S (2005) Howwiat-e Melli-e Iranian. Rahbord Yas 1(4): 129–138, p. 129.
- 89.
Non-Iranian Lands.
- 90.
Turkic Lands.
- 91.
Greece, Rome, Byzantium and Ottoman Empire Lands.
- 92.
European and Western Countries.
- 93.
The name given in medieval Arabic literature to the non-Arabs of the Islamic empire, but applied especially to the Persians. For more information see, Bosworth CE (1985) Ajam, Encyclopædia Iranica. I: 700–701. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ajam-the-name-given-in-medieval-arabic-literature-to-the-non-arabs-of-the-islamic-empire-but-applied-especially-to-the-per. Accessed 25 April 2014.
- 94.
The name refers to those who speak Persian (Farsi). For more information see, Moheat TM (1986) Tahgheeghat-e Irani: Darbare-ye Lafz-e Tajik wa Taat. Ayandeh 12(7-8): 343–349.
- 95.
Vendidad 1. Yasht. 13.143-44.
- 96.
Yasht. 10.13, refers to the original territory of Aryans. For more information see, MacKenzie DN (1998) ĒRĀN-WĒZ”, Encyclopædia Iranica. VIII(5): 536. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eran-wez. Accessed 17 August 2014.
- 97.
Benveniste É (1969) Le vocabulaire des institutions indo-européennes. Vol. I, Paris, p. 369.
- 98.
R Frye RN (2002) Ethnic Identity in Iran. JSAI: 78–83.
- 99.
Ibid.
- 100.
For more information on Arya and Aryans see, Bailey HW (1987) Arya. Encyclopædia Iranica II(7): 681–683. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arya-an-ethnic-epithet. Accessed 17 August 2014; Schmitt R (1987) Aryans. Encyclopædia Iranica II(7): 684–687. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aryans. Accessed 17 August 2014.
- 101.
Kent RG (1953) Old Persian Grammar, Texts, Lexicon. American Oriental Society, New Haven, Connecticut, pp. 137–138.
- 102.
Herodotus (7.62), Eratosthenes apud Strabo (15.2.8), Diodorus Siculus (1.94.2), Agathangelos (sec. 127).
- 103.
Ibid.
- 104.
Shapur Shahbazi A (2005) The history of the Idea of Iran. In Sarkhosh Curtis V, Stewart S (eds) (2005) The Birth of the Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris, London, pp. 100–111.
- 105.
Ibid., p. 100.
- 106.
Ibid., p. 100. For more information see, Cassel P (1896) Zoroaster: Seine Name und seine Zeit (Berliner Studien für classischen Philologie und Archeologie IV/1). Berlin.
- 107.
Gnoli G (1989) The Idea of Iran: An Essay on Its Origin. Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, Rome, p. 178; also see, Gnoli G (2005) Further Notes in Avestan Geography. In Weber D(ed). Language of Iran: Past and Present, Iranian. Studies in memoriam David Neil MacKenzie, Iranica 8, Otto Harrassowitz GmbH & Co., Wiesbaden, pp. 43–50.
- 108.
Ibid., p. 138.
- 109.
Ibid., p. 139.
- 110.
Christensen A (1936) L’Iran sous les Sassanides. Levin & Munksgaard, Copenhague, p. 108, 214–215, 416, 513.
- 111.
Ibid., p. 177.
- 112.
Hobsbawm EJ, Ranger TO (1983) The Invention of tradition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
- 113.
Daryaee T (2010) The Idea of Eransahr: Jewish, Christian and Manichaean Views. In Iranian Identity in the Course of History, & Cereti CG (2010). Iranian Identity in the Course of History: Proceedings of the conference held in Rome, 21–24 September 2005. Istituto italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente. 91.
- 114.
Shapur Shahbazi A (2005) The history of the Idea of Iran. In Sarkhosh Curtis V, Stewart S (eds) (2005) The Birth of the Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris, London, p. 101; Matini J (1992) Iran dar dowran-e Eslami. Majallay-e Iranshenasi IV/2 (Summer): 243–268.
- 115.
Fragner BG (1999) Der politische Begriff ‘Iran’ in der Neuzeit und seine historischen Wurzeln. In Gnoli G, Paniano A (eds) Proceedings of the First International Conference of Iranian Studies, 365–376, Rome; Shapur Shabazi also complained of those who “find a fertile ground to belittle Iranian nationalism in general by dismissing the idea of Iran as an invention of western scholars” and their ultra-nationalism Iranian followers.
- 116.
MacKenzie DN (1998) ĒRĀN, ĒRĀNŠAHR. Encyclopædia Iranica VIII(5): 534. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eran-eransah. Accessed online 17 August 2014.
- 117.
Saghebfar M (2000) Shahnameh wa Falsafeh-ye Tarikh-e Iran. Ghatreh Mo’een, Tehran.
- 118.
Ahmadi H (2007) Ghomiyat va Ghom- garaaee dar Iran, Afssaneh va Vagheyyat. Nashreh Nay, Tehran.
- 119.
Bausani A (1971) The Persians, from the earliest days to the Twentieth Century. Elek, London.
- 120.
Motahari M (1978) Khadamateh Moteghabeleh Eslam va Iran. Sadra, Tehran.
- 121.
Shari’ati A (1992) Bazshenasiyeh Howiateh Irani-Eslami. Elham, Tehran.
- 122.
For more information see: Zarrin-Kub AH (1975) Du Qarn Sokut, Tehran; Spuler B (1998). Tarikh-e Iran dar Qorun-e Nakhostin-e Eslami, Vol. I, translated by Jabad Falatori. Elmi Farhangi, Tehran.
- 123.
For more information see, Sadighi GH (1938) Les mouvements religieux iraniens au IIe et au IIIe siècle de l’hégire. Les Presses modern, Paris; Yusofi GH (1990) Behafarid. Encyclopædia Iranica IV: 88–90. Available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/behafarid-zoroastrian-heresiarch-and-self-styled-prophet-killed-131-748-49; Yusofi GH (1989) Babak Khorrami. Encyclopædia Iranica III: 299–306. Available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/babak-korrami; Zarrinkub A (2006) Eshaq Tork. Encyclopædia Iranica VIII:598. Available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eshaq-tork;Crone P (2012) Moqanna. Available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/moqanna; Bosworth CE (1985) Afšin. Encyclopædia Iranica I:589-591. Available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/afsin-princely-title.
- 124.
Yūsofī GH (1983) Abu Moslem Korasani. Encyclopædia Iranica I: 341–344. Available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abu-moslem-abd-al-rahman-b.
- 125.
For more information see: Sajadi S (2004) Barmakian. Daerato al-Maáref Bororg-e Eslami 12: 1–17.
- 126.
For more information on this impact see: Malayeri MM (1976) Estemrar-e Farhang-e Sasani dar Duran-e Eslami wa Elal wa Avamele An. Shorayeh Aleyeh FArhang wa Honar, Tehran.
- 127.
For more information on Shoubiya see: Momtahen HA (1975) Nehzat-e Shoubiya, Jonbesh-e Melli-e Iranian dar Barabar-e Khelafat-e Umawi wa Abbassi. Frankline, Tehran.
- 128.
Quoted from his speech in 31 May 2015.
- 129.
For a review on Iranian themes on Islamic historiography during ninth to eleventh century AD see: Ashraf (2006) Iranian Identity iii. Medieval Islamic Period Encyclopædia Iranica XIII: 507–522. Available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iranian-identity-iii-medieval-islamic-period.
- 130.
For more information see, Anwari H (2013) Iran wa Jahan-e Irani. Bokhara 94.
- 131.
For more information see, Krachkovski I (2000) Istoriia arabskoi geograficheskoi literatury. Tarikh Neweshtehay-e Joghrafiya-ee dar Jahan-e Eslami (trans: by Abul-Qasem Payahdeh). Elmi wa Farhangi, Tehran
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In comparison with other ancient civilizations in Mesopotamia (today Iraq, Syria, Jordan, and Lebanon) and Egypt and also lands in North of Africa (Algeria, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia) which their language had changed into Arabic and now are recognized as Arabic World or Arab league, Iran which had been known as the territory of the Eastern Caliphate and was adjacent to the Baghdad, capital of Abbasids, conserved its language and embellished it by using some aspects of Arabic language. Even nowadays the revolutionary wave of demonstrations and protest which began from 18 December 2010 in Arab World is known as the Arab Spring while the main issue of these demonstrations had Islamic aspects.
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By reviewing the documents in accordance with hypothesis regarding trauma, Edalat concludes that, “The psychological trauma experienced by the people of Iran through the Mongol catastrophe and its subsequent reenactments has caused damage to the social fabric of Iran which has proved to be the main obstacle to nurturing science. The prevalence of mistrust and instability in people’s emotions and the primacy of black and white thinking in their responses to nearly all matters not only instigated religious conflicts and incited clashes between opposing social groups such as the Ni’matis and Haydaris, but also fundamentally hindered moves towards scientific creativity and innovation.” For more information see, Edalat A (2010) Farziye-e Fajea’zadegi: Taseer-e Paydaar-e Fajea’-ye Moghol dar Tarikh-e Siyasi, Ejtamaee wa Elmi-ye Iran. Bokhara 77–78: 227–262. Trans: Trauma Hypothesis: The enduring legacy of the Mongol Catastrophe on the Political, Social and Scientific History of Iran. Available at http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~ae/papers/Mongols-8-3-13.pdf.
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Borumand, S. (2016). Historical Perspectives on Iranian Cultural Identity. In: Iran Revisited. Arts, Research, Innovation and Society. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-30485-4_4
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