Abstract
Climate change is one of the major environmental challenges of the twenty-first century. This chapter analyses the different ways climate change threatens cultural heritage, and examines the policy and legal measures that have been adopted by the European Union to enhance the protection of the European cultural heritage from the consequences of the accelerating degradation of the global climate. Its aim is twofold. First, to demonstrate that the existing EU regulatory framework may permit, to a certain extent, to reduce exposure and vulnerability of cultural assets and to increase their resilience to the adverse impacts of the changing climate. Second, to signal that, however, the measures put in place are not entirely effective as they entail significant legal risks. This chapter argues that EU institutions, together with EU Member States, should strive to operationalize the principles of ‘common good’ and ‘sustainable development’ in order to transform the current piecemeal response to the climate change-related weather events and disasters that threaten the cultural heritage into a coherent and effective regulatory framework.
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Notes
- 1.
Available at: <http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/index.shtml>, accessed 31 August 2015.
- 2.
IPCC (2013), p. 15.
- 3.
Human activities perturb the natural filtering effect of the atmosphere by adding GHGs (such as carbon dioxide and methane), which lead to an overall warming of the planet and to the disruption of the climate.
- 4.
IPCC (2014b).
- 5.
IPCC (2014a).
- 6.
IPCC (2014a), pp. 17–34.
- 7.
IPCC (2012), p. 556.
- 8.
IPCC (2012), p. 561.
- 9.
IPCC (2014b).
- 10.
IPCC (2014b), pp. 6–8.
- 11.
See also UN General Assembly, ‘Climate Change and Its Possible Security Implications’, Report of the Secretary-General, 11 September 2009, A/64/350.
- 12.
- 13.
See also UN Human Rights Council, Resolution 10/4 on Human Rights and Climate Change, 25 March 2009.
- 14.
Cardona et al. (2012), pp. 69–71.
- 15.
This is the ability of a community or society to resist, accommodate and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner. See United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, ‘Terminology: Resilience’, available at: <http://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/terminology>, accessed 31 August 2015.
- 16.
See e.g. EU Commission, ‘Towards an Integrated Approach to Cultural Heritage for Europe’ COM (2014) 477 final, 22 July 2014, p. 5.
- 17.
UNESCO World Heritage Centre, ‘Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage’ (2007), available at: <http://whc.unesco.org/en/activities/473>, accessed 31 August 2015.
- 18.
16 November 1972, 1037 UNTS 151.
- 19.
UNESCO World Heritage Centre, ‘Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage’ (2007), pp. 52–53, available at: <http://whc.unesco.org/en/activities/473>, accessed 31 August 2015.
- 20.
Ibid., pp. 64–65.
- 21.
Gruber (2008), pp. 15–16.
- 22.
Gruber (2008), p. 12.
- 23.
UNESCO World Heritage Centre, ‘Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage’ (2007), pp. 74–75, available at: <http://whc.unesco.org/en/activities/473>, accessed 31 August 2015.
- 24.
Ibid., p. 65.
- 25.
Mutter and Barnard (2010), pp. 275–276.
- 26.
See also Hee-Eun (2011).
- 27.
- 28.
On London, see UNESCO World Heritage Centre, ‘Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage’ (2007), pp. 66–69, available at: <http://whc.unesco.org/en/activities/473>, accessed 31 August 2015.
- 29.
These can be related to climate change because, in a warming world, tropical climate conditions expand toward the poles. Consequently, storm tracks that have been associated with the tropics are moving northward and areas that previously experienced very few hurricanes and cyclones will start to experience them in greater numbers. Mutter and Barnard (2010), pp. 275–277.
- 30.
Gilbert (2013).
- 31.
AXA ART Group, ‘Water – A Serious Peril to Works of Art’ (4 April 2013), available at: <http://www.axa-art-usa.com/news-events/detail/detail/water-a-serious-peril-to-works-of-art.html>, accessed 31 August 2015.
- 32.
See also the survey in ‘Report on Predicting and Managing the Effects of Climate Change on World Heritage’ (2006), which indicates that of ‘the 110 responses received from 83 States Parties, 72 % acknowledged that climate change had an impact on their natural and cultural heritage’, and that a ‘total of 125 World Heritage sites were mentioned specifically as threatened by Climate Change’ (paras. 39–46).
- 33.
These are the ‘Report on Predicting and Managing the Effects of Climate Change on World Heritage’ (2006); the ‘Strategy to Assist State Parties to Implement Appropriate Management Responses’ (2006); and the ‘Policy Document on the Impacts of Climate Change on World Heritage Properties’ (2007).
- 34.
Perry and Falzon (2014).
- 35.
See Annex 5, 4.b (ii).
- 36.
A WHC property can be inscribed on the List of World Heritage in Danger due to a potential danger ‘threatening impacts of climatic, geological or other environmental factors’ (para. 179(b)(vi)).
- 37.
Adopted 9 May 1992, 1771 UNTS 107.
- 38.
The ‘Strategy to Assist State Parties to Implement Appropriate Management Responses’ (2006) states that the ‘UNFCCC is the UN instrument through which mitigation strategies at the global and States Parties level is being addressed’ (para. 18).
- 39.
Due to space restrictions, this chapter will not dwell on the other policy areas listed in the document ‘Mapping of Cultural Heritage Actions in European Union Policies, Programmes and Activities’, available at: <http://ec.europa.eu/culture/library/>, accessed 31 August 2015.
- 40.
Pursuant to the Treaty of Lisbon (OJ C 115, 9 May 2008), the Treaty of Rome was replaced by the TFEU (OJ C 115/47, 9 May 2008) and the Treaty on European Union (TEU) was amended.
- 41.
The EU Charter (OJ EC C 364/1, 18 December 2000) became legally binding on the EU institutions and on national governments on 1 December 2009 with the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon.
- 42.
Resolution of the EU Council of 16 November 2007 on a European Agenda for Culture (OJ C 287/1, 29 November 2007).
- 43.
One of the priorities for cooperation between the EU and Africa is the fight against illicit trafficking. Heritage-related topics are also addressed in policy dialogues with strategic partners such as Brazil, China and India. See EU Commission, ‘Towards an Integrated Approach to Cultural Heritage for Europe’ COM (2014) 477 final, 22 July 2014.
- 44.
EU Commission, ‘Report on the Implementation of the European Agenda for Culture’ COM (2010) 390 final, 19 July 2010.
- 45.
Conclusions on a Work Plan for Culture (2015–2018) OJ C 463/4, 23 December 2014.
- 46.
EU Commission, ‘Towards an Integrated Approach to Cultural Heritage for Europe’ COM (2014) 477 final, 22 July 2014, p. 13.
- 47.
See also EU Council Conclusions of 21 May 2014 on Cultural Heritage as a Strategic Resource for a Sustainable Europe (OJ C 183, 14 June 2014).
- 48.
The ‘Creative Europe’ programme was established with Regulation 1295/2013 of 11 December 2013 and has a budget of €1.46 billion. It was preceded by the ‘Culture 2000’ and ‘Culture 2007–2013’ programmes.
- 49.
See at: <http://pjp-eu.coe.int/en/web/ehd-jep/home>.
- 50.
Launched in 2002 by the EU Commission, since then it has been organised by Europa Nostra, a non-governmental organization based in The Hague. See at: <http://www.europanostra.org/heritage-awards/>.
- 51.
Decision 445/2014/EU of 16 April 2014 establishing a Union Action for the European Capitals of Culture for the years 2020 to 2033 and repealing Decision No. 1622/2006/EC.
- 52.
Established with Decision 1194/2011/EU of 16 November 2011.
- 53.
Proposal for a Decision of the European Parliament and of the Council Establishing a European Union Action for the European Heritage Label COM (2010) 76 final, p. 2.
- 54.
‘Union policy on the environment shall contribute to pursuit of the following objectives: […] promoting measures […] to deal with […] environmental problems, and in particular combating climate change’.
- 55.
Lee (2014), p. 4.
- 56.
Decision 1386/2013/EU of 20 November 2013 on a General Union Environment Action Programme to 2020 ‘Living Well, within the Limits of Our Planet’ (OJ L 354/171, 28 December 2013).
- 57.
Ibid., Article 2.
- 58.
Directive 2014/52/EU (OJ L 124/1, 16 April 2014) on the assessment of the effects of certain public and private projects on the environment. This Directive has amended Directive 2011/92/EU of 13 December 2011, which codified the initial Directive 85/337/EEC of 27 June 1985 and its three amendments (Directive 97/11/EC, Directive 2003/38/EC, Directive 2009/31/EC).
- 59.
Directive 2001/42/EC of 27 June 2001 on the assessment of the effects of certain plans and programmes on the environment (OJ L 197, 21 July 2001).
- 60.
Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora (OJ L 206, 22 July 1992).
- 61.
White Paper ‘Adapting to Climate Change: Towards a European Framework for Action’ COM (2009) 147 final, 1 April 2009.
- 62.
Under the Kyoto Protocol, States must meet their reduction targets for GHG emissions primarily through national measures. In addition, the Protocol introduced three market-based mechanisms: (1) Joint Fulfilment of Commitments and Implementation; (2) the Clean Development Mechanism; and (3) Emissions Trading. For an analysis of these mechanisms see Leal-Arcas (2013), pp. 227 ff.
- 63.
This new agreement is due to be adopted at the 21st session of the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC, which will take place in December 2015 in Paris.
- 64.
EU Commission, ‘Building a World We Like, with a Climate We Like’, 2014, p. 14, available at: <http://europa.eu/pol/clim/index_en.htm>, accessed 31 August 2015.
- 65.
Ibid., p. 5.
- 66.
EU Commission, ‘Report Progress towards Achieving the Kyoto and EU 2020 Objectives’, October 2014. However, it seems that reductions are largely due to: reduced output during the post-2008 recession; earlier unrelated reductions such as a shift from coal to gas and migration of industry out of the EU; mild winters; and high energy prices. Lee (2014), p. 146.
- 67.
EU Commission, ‘20 20 by 2020: Europe’s Climate Change Opportunity’ COM (2008) 30 final.
- 68.
Directive 2003/87/EC of 13 October 2003 establishing a scheme for greenhouse gas emission allowance trading within the Community and amending Directive 96/61/EC. The EU ETS is the centrepiece of the EU’s policy to combat climate change. It aims at reducing industrial GHG emissions by setting up: limits (caps) to the amount of GHGs that can be emitted by the installations covered; tradable emission allowances; and fines in case of non-compliance.
- 69.
Decision 406/2009/EC of 23 April 2009 on the effort of Member States to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to meet the Community’s greenhouse gas emission reduction commitments up to 2020.
- 70.
Directive 2009/28/EC of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC.
- 71.
Directive 2009/31/EC of 23 April 2009 on the geological storage of carbon dioxide and amending Directives 85/337/EEC, 2000/60/EC, 2001/80/EC, 2004/35/EC, 2006/12/EC, 2008/1/EC, and Regulation 1013/2006.
- 72.
EU Council, Conclusions – 23/24 October 2014.
- 73.
‘Roadmap for Moving to a Low-Carbon Economy in 2050’ COM (2011) 112 final, 8 March 2011.
- 74.
EU Council, ‘An EU Strategy on Adaptation to Climate Change’ COM (2013) 216 final, 16 April 2013, available at: <http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/adaptation/what/documentation_en.htm>, accessed 31 August 2015.
- 75.
Directive 2007/60/EC of 23 October 2007 on the assessment and management of flood risks.
- 76.
Apart from the provisions described in what follows, the TFEU contains two other relevant norms: Article 107 stipulates that ‘aid to make good the damage caused by natural disasters […]’ is compatible with the internal market; Article 122 says that ‘[w]here a Member State is in difficulties or is seriously threatened with severe difficulties caused by natural disasters or exceptional occurrences beyond its control, the Council, on a proposal from the Commission, may grant, under certain conditions, Union financial assistance to the Member State concerned […]’.
- 77.
Gestri (2012), p. 109.
- 78.
Established with Decision 1313/2013/EU of 17 December 2013 on a Union Civil Protection Mechanism (OJ L 347/924, 20 December 2013). The UCPM replaced the Civil Protection Mechanism, which was established with Decision 2001/792/EC Euratom of 23 October 2001 (OJ 2001 L 297/7, 15 November 2001).
- 79.
Decision 1313/2013/EU of 17 December 2013 on a Union Civil Protection Mechanism (OJ L 347/924, 20 December 2013), preamble, fifth recital.
- 80.
Another explicit reference to the protection of cultural heritage is contained in EU Parliament Resolution of 21 September 2010 on the Commission Communication ‘A Community Approach on the Prevention of Natural and Man-Made Disasters’ (2009/2151 (INI)).
- 81.
The nexus between climate change and the increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events and disasters was also recognized by the European Environmental Agency with the document ‘Mapping the Impacts of Natural Hazards and Technological Accidents in Europe: An Overview of the Last Decade’, Copenhagen, 2011.
- 82.
IPCC (2014b).
- 83.
From the cultural heritage perspective, the direct and indirect effects of air pollution in urban areas represent the most serious risks. Direct effects consist in the deterioration of monuments and artworks: recession of façades in limestone or marble, soiling of stone surface, chemical leaching of stained glass, and metal corrosion. Indirect effects stem from the slow deterioration and extreme weather events originating from the warming of the planet.
- 84.
Cardona et al. (2012), pp. 69–71.
- 85.
See e.g. EU Commission, ‘Action Plan for Resilience in Crisis Prone Countries’ SWD (2013) 227 final; and 2007 EU Global Climate Change Alliance Flagship Initiative 2014–2020.
- 86.
See e.g. EU Commission, ‘A Decent Life for All: From Vision to Collective Action’ COM (2014) 335 final.
- 87.
Adopted in 2015 at the Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (Sendai, Japan), it is the successor of the ‘Hyogo Framework for Action 2005–2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters’.
- 88.
- 89.
For instance, tourism is estimated to contribute €415 billion to the EU GDP and 3.4 million tourism enterprises account for 15.2 million jobs. See EU Commission, ‘Towards an Integrated Approach to Cultural Heritage for Europe’ COM (2014) 477 final, 22 July 2014, p. 4.
- 90.
European Environmental Agency, ‘Mapping the Impacts of Natural Hazards and Technological Accidents in Europe: An Overview of the Last Decade’, Copenhagen, 2011, pp. 21–22.
- 91.
EU Commission, ‘Towards an Integrated Approach to Cultural Heritage for Europe’ COM (2014) 477 final, 22 July 2014, p. 5.
- 92.
Ibid.
- 93.
Bevan (2013).
- 94.
Francioni (2012a), p. 722.
- 95.
In economic literature, a common good is one that is characterized by non-rivalry (anyone can use a good without diminishing its availability to others) and non-excludability (no one can be excluded from using the good). See Kaul et al. (1999).
- 96.
Voigt (2014), p. 11.
- 97.
Preamble, first, second and third recitals. Adopted 6 December 1988.
- 98.
Preamble, first recital.
- 99.
Adopted 14 May 1954, 249 UNTS 240.
- 100.
Preamble, second recital.
- 101.
Preamble, fifth recital.
- 102.
Article I.
- 103.
This idea was articulated for the first time by the International Court of Justice in Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (Belgium v. Spain), 5 February 1970, ICJ Reports 1970, 3, para. 33.
- 104.
Francioni (2014), p. 444.
- 105.
10 December 1982, 21 ILM 1261 (1982).
- 106.
See e.g. Joyner (1986).
- 107.
Shelton (2009), p. 34.
- 108.
Francioni (2006), pp. 3, 8–9, 15.
- 109.
Francioni (2012b), pp. 19–20.
- 110.
Shelton (2009), p. 38.
- 111.
Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, ‘Our Common Future’ (1987).
- 112.
This is proved by the Hangzhou Declaration (adopted at UNESCO’s Congress ‘Culture: Key to Sustainable Development’, 15–17 May 2013), which represents the culmination of UNESCO’s long-standing advocacy to prove the link between culture and development.
- 113.
Bosselmann (2008), p. 63.
- 114.
Bosselmann (2008), p. 61.
- 115.
Article 37: ‘A high level of environmental protection and the improvement of the quality of the environment must be integrated into the policies of the Union and ensured in accordance with the principle of sustainable development’.
- 116.
See supra Sect. 3.1.
- 117.
From 2007 to 2013, the Regional Development Fund allocated €3.2 billion for the protection and preservation of cultural heritage, €2.2 billion for the development of cultural infrastructure, and €553 million for cultural services. In the 2014–2020 period, cultural heritage investments are possible under the specific regulations of the Cohesion Policy, whose overall budget is €325 billion. EU Commission, ‘Mapping of Cultural Heritage Actions in European Union Policies, Programmes and Activities’, available at: <http://ec.europa.eu/culture/library/>, p. 10, accessed 31 August 2015.
- 118.
The new Framework Programme for Research and Innovation, Horizon 2020, has a budget of €80 billion for the period 2014–2020, and supports heritage-related research under the three pillars of the programme: Excellent Science, Industrial Leadership, and Societal Challenges. In the latter, Challenge 6 (‘Europe in a Changing World: Inclusive, Innovative and Reflective Societies’) and Challenge 5 (‘Climate Action, Environment, Resource Efficiency and Raw Materials’) require the development of technology and multidisciplinary research for the preservation of cultural heritage resources. EU Commission, ‘Mapping of Cultural Heritage Actions in European Union Policies, Programmes and Activities’, p. 14, available at: <http://ec.europa.eu/culture/library/>, accessed 31 August 2015.
- 119.
IPCC (2014b).
- 120.
- 121.
Adelman (2010), p. 164.
- 122.
Francioni (2012c), p. 458.
- 123.
- 124.
- 125.
Bosselmann (2002), p. 84.
- 126.
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Chechi, A. (2016). Risks Relating to the Protection of Cultural Heritage: From Climate Change to Disasters. In: Mišćenić, E., Raccah, A. (eds) Legal Risks in EU Law. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28596-2_10
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