Abstract
The chapter illustrates actors’ claims in the South China Sea dispute from the perspective of international law and subsequently discusses approaches to conflict management. After examining the historical background of the dispute including its major actors and their respective interests, the chapter assesses the claims of the actors involved under international law. Of particular interest in this regard is the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Finally, the chapter introduces what might by called the “Spitsbergen Plus Approach” and thus offers an innovative approach to conflict management in the South China Sea.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Cited in Bland (2012).
- 2.
Rudd (2013).
- 3.
Sommer (2014).
- 4.
Taylor (2014).
- 5.
- 6.
See below.
- 7.
Lam (2013, p. 13).
- 8.
- 9.
Fravel (2011, p. 292).
- 10.
Poling (2013, p. 1).
- 11.
Dutton (2011, p. 42).
- 12.
Hong (2012, p. 6).
- 13.
Beckman (2013b, p. 143).
- 14.
Bader et al. (2014, p. 4).
- 15.
While all islands and other features in the South China Sea (as well as the South China Sea itself) have various names in different languages, the author throughout the text uses the commonly applied English names.
- 16.
Bader et al. (2014, p. 4).
- 17.
Poling (2013, pp. 21–2).
- 18.
- 19.
For the (legal) significance of the distinction between islands, rocks, and other features see below.
- 20.
- 21.
Beckman (2013b, p. 144).
- 22.
Xinhua.net (2012).
- 23.
Bader et al. (2014, p. 4).
- 24.
Beckman (2013a, p. 18).
- 25.
Cited in Fravel (2011, p. 296).
- 26.
For a discussion of ASEAN’s role in the South China Sea dispute sea Collinson and Roberts (2013).
- 27.
Taylor (2014, p. 102).
- 28.
Buszynski (2013, p. 4).
- 29.
- 30.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2011, p. 141).
- 31.
U.S. Energy Information Administration (2013).
- 32.
U.S. Energy Information Administration (2013). By way of comparison, the EIA lists 297 billion barrels in proved crude oil reserves for Venezuela and 1688 trillion cubic feet in proved natural gas resources for Russia as the respective globally leading countries; see U.S. Energy Information Administration 2015.
- 33.
For an estimation of future developments in energy demands see British Petroleum (2014).
- 34.
Beckman (2013b, p. 152).
- 35.
Beckman (2013b, p. 143).
- 36.
- 37.
U.S. Energy Information Administration (2013).
- 38.
Glaser (2012a).
- 39.
Bader et al. (2014, p. 4).
- 40.
Pham (2014).
- 41.
U.S. Department of State (2010).
- 42.
- 43.
Tønnesson (2012, p. 7).
- 44.
Mutual Defense Treaty Between the Republic of the Philippines and the United States of America, August 30, 1951.
- 45.
Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan, January 19, 1960.
- 46.
- 47.
Dutton (2011, p. 42).
- 48.
Schofield (2013, p. 10).
- 49.
Dutton (2011, p. 42).
- 50.
United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 516, p. 205.
- 51.
United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 450, p. 11.
- 52.
United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 559, p. 285.
- 53.
United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 499, p. 311.
- 54.
United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1833, p. 3, cited as UNCLOS or Convention.
- 55.
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea (2012).
- 56.
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea (2013a).
- 57.
- 58.
Poling (2013, p. 18).
- 59.
Beckman (2013a, p. 19).
- 60.
Beckman (2013a, p. 19).
- 61.
Taiwan represents a special case in this regard. While Taiwan took part in negotiations of UNCLOS I, the People's Republic of China took its place at negotiations of UNCLOS III in 1982. Under Article 1 (2) UNCLOS, Taiwan cannot become a member of the Convention. However, considering the fact that UNCLOS represents in large parts codification of customary law and enjoys almost universal acceptance, the Convention remains the core point of reference among all claimant states; see Park (2000, p. 14).
- 62.
ASEAN (2014).
- 63.
Rothwell (2013, p. 14).
- 64.
- 65.
Art. 5 UNCLOS.
- 66.
Art. 7 UNCLOS.
- 67.
Arts. 8 and 2 (1) UNCLOS.
- 68.
Arts. 46–54 UNCLOS.
- 69.
Art. 3 UNCLOS.
- 70.
Art. 2 (1) UNCLOS.
- 71.
Art. 33 (2) UNCLOS.
- 72.
Art. 33 (1) (a) UNCLOS.
- 73.
Art. 57 UNCLOS.
- 74.
Art. 55 (1) (a) UNCLOS.
- 75.
Art. 60 (1) UNCLOS.
- 76.
See below.
- 77.
Crawford (2012, p. 270).
- 78.
Poling (2013, p. 16).
- 79.
Art. 76 (8) in conjunction with Annex II Art. 4 UNCLOS.
- 80.
United Nations (2001).
- 81.
Tønnesson (2012, p. 8).
- 82.
Art. 78 (1) UNCLOS.
- 83.
Art. 83 UNCLOS.
- 84.
For example, see North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (Federal Republic of Germany v. Netherlands & Federal Republic of Germany v. Denmark), ICJ Reports 1969, p. 3 (February 20, 1969) or the Dispute concerning delimitation of the maritime boundary between Bangladesh and Myanmar in the Bay of Bengal (Bangladesh/Myanmar), ITLOS Case No. 16 (March 14, 2012).
- 85.
Art. 87 (1) UNCLOS.
- 86.
Art. 1 (1) UNCLOS.
- 87.
Art. 136 UNCLOS.
- 88.
Art. 140 (1) UNCLOS.
- 89.
Perhaps for this reason, Part XI was one of the most fiercely debated items in the entire negotiation and only an Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 (July 7, 1994), UN Doc A/RES/48/263, provided remedy.
- 90.
Crawford (2012, pp. 294–5).
- 91.
- 92.
Crawford (2012, pp. 262–3).
- 93.
Hong (2012, p. 50).
- 94.
Art. 13 (1) UNCLOS.
- 95.
Art. 13 (2) UNCLOS.
- 96.
Art. 13 (1) UNCLOS.
- 97.
Art. 60 (4) UNCLOS.
- 98.
Art. 60 (8) UNCLOS.
- 99.
Art. 60 (1) UNCLOS.
- 100.
Beckman (2012, p. 2).
- 101.
Relevant legal provisions adopted by claimant states include for Brunei the Territorial Waters of Brunei Act (1982, revised in 2002); for China the Law on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone (1992), the Declaration of the Government of the People’s Republic of China on the Baselines of the Territorial (1996), and the Exclusive Economic Zone and Continental Shelf Act (1998); for Malaysia the Continental Shelf Act (1966), the Proclamation of the Economic Zone (1978), the Exclusive Economic Zone Act (1984), the Baselines of Maritime Zones Act (2006) and the Territorial Sea Act (2012); for the Philippines the Act to Define the Baselines of the Territorial Sea of the Philippines (Republic Act No. 3046, 1961) and An Act to Amend Certain Provisions of Republic Act No. 3046, as Amended by Republic Act No. 5446, to Define the Archipelagic Baseline of the Philippines and for Other Purposes (Republic Act No. 9522, 2009); for Taiwan the Law on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone of the Republic of China (1998) and the Law on the Exclusive Economic Zone and the Continental Shelf of the Republic of China (1998); and for Vietnam the Statement on the Territorial Sea, the Contiguous Zone, the Exclusive Economic Zone and the Continental Shelf (1977) and the Statement of 12 November 1982 by the Government of the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam on the Territorial Sea Baseline of Viet Nam (1982), the Maritime Code of Viet Nam (2005), and the Law of the Sea of Viet Nam (2012).
- 102.
- 103.
Schwartz (2014, p. 2).
- 104.
- 105.
Art. 2 (2) UNCLOS.
- 106.
Roach (2014, p. 36).
- 107.
Schofield (2013, p. 11).
- 108.
Beckman (2013b, p. 146).
- 109.
Dutton (2011, p. 53).
- 110.
- 111.
Beckman (2013b, p. 148).
- 112.
Schofield (2013, p. 11).
- 113.
Beckman (2013b, p. 147).
- 114.
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea (2009b).
- 115.
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea (2009c).
- 116.
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea (2008).
- 117.
- 118.
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea (2009d).
- 119.
Dutton (2011, pp. 44–5).
- 120.
Beckman (2013b, p. 154). The nine-dashed line is also known as the “u-shaped line” or the “nine-dotted line.”
- 121.
Fravel (2011, p. 295).
- 122.
Higgins (2013, p. 54).
- 123.
Tønnesson (2012, p. 9).
- 124.
- 125.
Beckman (2013b, p. 156).
- 126.
- 127.
Tønnesson (2012, p. 10).
- 128.
- 129.
Supra note 102.
- 130.
- 131.
Beckman (2013b, p. 149).
- 132.
Beckman (2013b, p. 151).
- 133.
Beckman and Bernhard (2011, p. 4).
- 134.
Poling (2013, p. 20).
- 135.
Poling (2013, pp. 27–8).
- 136.
Beckman (2013b, p. 151).
- 137.
Beckman (2013b, p. 153).
- 138.
Kivimäki (2002, p. 535).
- 139.
Fravel (2011, pp. 293–4).
- 140.
Supra note 119.
- 141.
Dutton (2011, p. 45).
- 142.
For the following paragraph on possible interpretations of the Chinese notes verbales as well as reactions by other states see Beckman (2013b, pp. 155–6).
- 143.
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea (2011a).
- 144.
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea (2011b).
- 145.
See, for example, Max Huber’s verdict in the Island of Palmas Case (Netherlands v. USA), Permanent Court of Arbitration 2 U.N. Rep. Int’l Arb. Awards 829 (1928).
- 146.
Beckman and Bernhard (2011, p. 5).
- 147.
Beckman (2013b, p. 163).
- 148.
- 149.
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea (2013b).
- 150.
Supra note 102.
- 151.
Buszynski (2013, p. 7).
- 152.
Dutton (2011, p. 50).
- 153.
Buszynski (2013, p. 7).
- 154.
Beckman (2013b, p. 156).
- 155.
Kivimäki (2002, p. 536).
- 156.
Dutton (2011, pp. 51–2).
- 157.
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea (2009e).
- 158.
Beckman (2013b, pp. 152–3).
- 159.
Supra note 11.
- 160.
Taylor (2014, p. 108).
- 161.
Dutton (2011, p. 58).
- 162.
Poling (2013, p. 25).
- 163.
Dutton (2011, pp. 58–9).
- 164.
Poling (2013, p. 2).
- 165.
Beckman (2013b, p. 159).
- 166.
Poling (2013, p. 4).
- 167.
Poling (2013, p. 4).
- 168.
Beckman (2012, p. 2).
- 169.
Cited in Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China (2014a).
- 170.
- 171.
Beckman and Bernhard (2011, p. 10).
- 172.
Art. 74 UNCLOS.
- 173.
Art. 83 UNCLOS.
- 174.
Arts. 279–299 UNCLOS.
- 175.
Art. 123 UNCLOS.
- 176.
Arts. 279–285 UNCLOS.
- 177.
Arts. 286–296 UNCLOS.
- 178.
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea (2013b).
- 179.
Arts. 15, 74, and 83 UNCLOS.
- 180.
For an analysis of the effects of China’s 2006 declaration under Article 298 UNCLOS see Beckman and Bernhard (2011, pp. 14–6).
- 181.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China (2014b).
- 182.
Tønnesson (2012, p. 7).
- 183.
Supra note 161.
- 184.
- 185.
I am much obliged to Enrico Fels who suggested to me the idea of drawing on the Spitsbergen Treaty as a precedent in international law.
- 186.
Officially, the treaty is called Treaty between Norway, The United States of America, Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Great Britain and Ireland and the British overseas Dominions and Sweden concerning Spitsbergen. The treaty soon became known as the Spitsbergen Treaty or Svalbard Treaty. See League of Nations Treaty Series, vol. 2, p. 8.
- 187.
- 188.
Dutton (2011, p. 60).
- 189.
Supra note 161.
- 190.
It is this aspect that led to the designation of the approach as “Spitsbergen Plus” since here applicability reaches its limits. It also induced the author to speak of conflict management rather than settlement since the question of sovereignty is not conclusively settled but rather shelved for the time being.
- 191.
Supra note 124.
- 192.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China (Taiwan) (2013).
- 193.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China (Taiwan) (2013).
- 194.
Khanna and Gilman (2012).
- 195.
Supra note 11.
References
ASEAN. (2014). Declaration on the conduct of parties in the South China Sea. Online at: http://www.asean.org/asean/external-relations/china/item/declaration-on-the-conduct-of-parties-in-the-south-china-sea (accessed January 18, 2015).
Bader, J., Lieberthal, K., & McDevitt, M. (August 2014). Keeping the South China Sea in perspective. The Foreign Policy Brief. 1–12.
Beckman, R. (2012). The China-Philippines dispute in the South China Sea: Does Beijing have a legitimate claim? RSIS Commentaries (No. 036/2012).
Beckman, R. (2013a). The South China Sea: The evolving dispute between China and her maritime neighbours. GeomaticsWorld, 3(21), 18–21.
Beckman, R. (2013b). The UN convention on the law of the sea and the maritime disputes in the South China Sea. American Journal of International Law, 107(1), 142–163.
Beckman, R. C., & Bernard, L. (2011, November) Disputed areas in the South China Sea: Prospects for arbitration or advisory opinion. Third International Workshop, The South China Sea: Cooperation for Regional Security and Development. Online at: http://cil.nus.edu.sg/wp/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/Beckman-Bernard-Paper-DAV-Conf-3-5-Nov-2011.pdf (accessed January 18, 2015).
Bland, B. (2012, November 28). ASEAN chief warns on South China Sea. Financial Times. Online at: http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/c025d896-386b-11e2-981c-00144feabdc0.html (accessed January 18, 2015).
British Petroleum. (2014). BP Energy Outlook 2035. Online at: http://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/pdf/Energy-economics/Energy-Outlook/Energy_Outlook_2035_booklet.pdf (accessed January 18, 2015).
Buszynski, L. (2013). The development of the South China Sea maritime dispute. The South China Sea and Australia’s Regional Security Environment, National Security College Occasional Paper, 5, 4–7.
Collinson, G., & Roberts, C. B. (2013). The Role of ASEAN. The South China Sea and Australia’s Regional Security Environment, National Security College Occasional Paper, 5, 35–39.
Crawford, J. (2012). Brownlie’s principles of public international law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cruz De Castro, R. (2013, July 9). Return to relevance: The Philippine-U.S. Alliance. World Politics Review. Online at: http://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles/13072/return-to-relevance-the-philippine-u-s-alliance (accessed January 18, 2015).
Dutton, P. (2011). Three disputes and three objectives. Naval War College Review, 64(4), 43–67.
Elferink, A. G. O. (1998). Clarifying article 121 (3) of the law of the sea convention: The limits set by the nature of international legal processes. IBRU Boundary and Security Bulletin, 6(2), 58–68.
Emmers, R. (2013). The US rebalancing strategy: Impact on the South China Sea. The South China Sea and Australia’s Regional Security Environment, National Security College Occasional Paper, 5, 41–44.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2011). Review of the State of World Fishery Resources. FAO Fisheries and Agriculture Technical Paper, 569. Online at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2389e/i2389e.pdf (accessed January 18, 2015).
Fravel, M. T. (2011). China’s strategy in the South China Sea. Contemporary Southeast Asia: A Journal of International and Strategic Affairs, 33(3), 292–319.
Gao, Z. (1994). The South China Sea: From conflict to cooperation? Ocean Development & International Law, 25(3), 345–359.
Glaser, B. S. (2012a, April). Armed clash in the South China Sea. Council on Foreign Relations Contingency Planning Memorandum, 14. online at: http://i.cfr.org/content/publications/attachments/CPA_contingencymemo_14.pdf (accessed January 18, 2015).
Glaser, B. S. (2012b, April 13). Pivot to Asia: Prepare for unintended consequences. Center for Strategic and International Studies. Online at: http://csis.org/files/publication/120413_gf_glaser.pdf (accessed January 18, 2015).
Greenfield, J. (1992). China’s practice in the law of the sea. Oxford: Clarendon.
Higgins, R. (2013). The ICJ and dispute settlement in the Asian Seas: An assessment: Proceedings of the annual meeting. American Society of International Law, 107, 53–56.
Hong, N. (2012). UNCLOS and ocean dispute settlement: Law and politics in the South China Sea. London: Routledge.
Karaman, I. V. (2012). Dispute resolution in the Law of the Sea. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
Khanna, P., & Gilman, J. (2012, November 13). Does Norway hold the key to solving South China Sea Dispute?. CNN International. Online at: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/11/13/opinion/khanna-south-china-sea-dispute/ (January 18, 2015).
Kivimäki, T. (2002). ‘Reason’ and ‘Power’ in territorial disputes: The South China Sea. Asian Journal of Social Science, 30(3), 525–546.
Klein, N. S. (2005). Dispute settlement in the UN convention on the Law of the Sea. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Lam, W. (2013). Beijing’s aggressive new foreign policy and implications for the South China Sea. China Brief, 13(13), 11–14.
Lieberthal, K. (December 21, 2011). The American Pivot to Asia. Foreign Policy, 21. Online at: http://foreignpolicy.com/2011/12/21/the-american-pivot-to-asia/ (accessed January 18, 2015).
Manyin, M. E., et al. (2012, March 18). Pivot to the Pacific? The Obama administration’s rebalancing toward Asia. Congressional Research Service. Online at: http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a584466.pdf (accessed January 18, 2015).
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. (2014a). Set aside dispute and pursue joint development. Online at: http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/ziliao_665539/3602_665543/3604_665547/t18023.shtml (accessed January 18, 2015).
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. (2014b). Summary of the Position Paper of the Government of the People’s Republic of China on the Matter of Jurisdiction in the South China Sea Arbitration Initiated by the Republic of the Philippines. Online at: http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/zxxx_662805/t1217149.shtml (accessed January 18, 2015).
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China (Taiwan) (2013, April 15). Republic of China (Taiwan) signs Fisheries Agreement with Japan. Online at: http://www.mofa.gov.tw/en/News_Content.aspx?n=539A9A50A5F8AF9E&sms=37B41539382B84BA&s=E80C25D078D837BB (accessed January 18, 2015).
Østreng, W. (1977). Politics in high latitudes: The Svalbard Archipelago. London: C. Hurst.
Park, H. K. (2000). The Law of the Sea and Northeast Asia: A challenge for cooperation (Vol. 35, pp. 91–92). Boston MA: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
Pham, D. (2014, December 4). No more guessing: The South China Sea and strategic clarity. Kennedy School Review. Online at: http://harvardkennedyschoolreview.com/no-more-guessing-the-south-china-sea-and-strategic-clarity/ (accessed January 18, 2015).
Poling, G. B. (2013). The South China Sea in focus: Clarifying the limits of maritime dispute. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
Roach, J. A. (2014, August). Malaysia and Brunei: An analysis of their claims in the South China Sea. A CNA Occasional Paper. Online at: http://www.cna.org/sites/default/files/research/IOP-2014-U-008434.pdf (accessed January 18, 2015).
Ross, R. S. (2012). The problem with the pivot: Obama’s New Asia Policy is unnecessary and counterproductive. Foreign Affairs, 91, 83.
Rothwell, D. R. (2013). The 1982 UN convention on the Law of the Sea and its relevance to maritime disputes in the South China Sea. The South China Sea and Australia’s Regional Security Environment, National Security College Occasional Paper, 5, 14–17.
Rowan, J. P. (2005). The US-Japan Security Alliance, ASEAN, and the South China Sea Dispute. Asian Survey, 45(3), 414–436.
Rudd, K. (2013, January 30). A Maritime Balkans of the 21st Century? East Asia is a Tinderbox on Water. Foreign Policy. Online at: http://foreignpolicy.com/2013/01/30/a-maritime-balkans-of-the-21st-century (accessed January 18, 2015).
Saul, B. (2013). China, natural resources, sovereignty and international law. Asian Studies Review, 37(2), 196–214.
Schofield, C. (2013). Increasingly contested waters? Conflicting maritime claims in the South China Sea. The South China Sea and Australia’s Regional Security Environment, National Security College Occasional Paper, 5, 9–12.
Schwartz, L. (February 2014). Competing claims in the South China Sea: Potential paths forward and implications for the United States. The National Bureau of Asian Research Political and Security Affairs. 1–6. Online at: http://www.nbr.org/downloads/pdfs/psa/SouthChinaSea_Roundtable_report.pdf (accessed January 18, 2015).
Smith, S. A. (July 9, 2013). Feeling the heat: Asia’s shifting geopolitics and the U.S.-Japan Alliance. World Politics Review. Online at: http://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles/13078/feeling-the-heat-asias-shifting-geopolitics-and-the-u-s-japan-alliance (accessed January 18, 2015).
Sommer, T. (2014, February 11). China und Japan spielen mit dem Feuer. Zeit Online. Online at: http://www.zeit.de/politik/2014-02/asien-aufstieg-weltwirtschaft-angst-bewaffneter-konflikt (accessed January 18, 2015).
Song, Y.-h. (2010). The Application of Article 121 of the Law of the Sea Convention to the Selected Geographical Features Situated in the Pacific Ocean. Chinese Journal of International Law, 9(4), 663–698.
Symmons, C. R. (2008). Historic waters in the Law of the Sea: A modern re-appraisal. Boston MA: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
Talmon, S., & Jia, B. B. (Eds.). (2014). The South China Sea arbitration: A Chinese perspective. UK: Bloomsbury Publishing.
Tanaka, Y. (2012). The International Law of the Sea. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Taylor, B. (2014). The South China Sea is not a flashpoint. The Washington Quarterly, 37(1), 99–111.
The Governor of Svalbard. (2012, June 14). Svalbard treaty. Online at: http://www.sysselmannen.no/en/Toppmeny/About-Svalbard/Laws-and-regulations/Svalbard-Treaty/ (accessed January 18, 2015).
Tønnesson, S. (2002). The history of the dispute. In War or peace in the South China Sea? (pp. 6–23).
Tønnesson, S. (2008). An international history of the dispute in the South China Sea. The People’s Republic of China and Southeast Asia. Routledge Library on Southeast Asia (Vol. VI, pp. 337–362). London: Routledge.
Tønnesson, S. (2012, February 15). International Law in the South China Sea: Does it drive or help resolve conflict? Online at: http://nghiencuubiendong.vn/trung-tam-du-lieu-bien-dong/doc_download/512-stein-tonnesson-internaional-law-in-the-south-china-sea-does-it-drive-or-help-resolve-conflict (accessed January 18, 2015).
U.S. Department of State. (October 30, 2010). Intervention at the East Asia Summit. Online at: http://www.state.gov/secretary/20092013clinton/rm/2010/10/150196.htm (accessed January 18, 2015).
U.S. Energy Information Administration. (2013, February 7). South China Sea. Online at: http://www.eia.gov/countries/analysisbriefs/South_China_Sea/ south_china_sea.pdf (accessed January 18, 2015).
U.S. Energy Information Administration. (2015). International energy statistics. Online at: http://www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/IEDIndex3.cfm (accessed January 18, 2015).
Ulfstein, G. (1995). The Svalbard Treaty: From terra nullius to Norwegian Sovereignty. Oslo: Scandinavian University Press.
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. (2008). Rules of procedure of the commission. Online at: http://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/commission_rules.htm (accessed January 18, 2015).
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. (2009a). Submission by the Republic of the Philippines. Online at: http://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/submission_phl_22_2009.htm (accessed January 18, 2015).
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. (2009b). Joint Submission by Malaysia and the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam. Online at: http://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/submission_mysvnm_33_2009.htm (accessed January 18, 2015).
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. (2009c). Submission by the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam. Online at: http://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/submission_vnm_37_2009.htm (accessed January 18, 2015).
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. (2009d). Communication dated 7 May 2009. Online at: http://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/vnm37_09/chn_2009re_vnm.pdf (accessed January 18, 2015).
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. (2009e). Communication dated 18 August 2009. Online at: http://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/mysvnm33_09/vnm_re_phl_2009re_mys_vnm_e.pdf (accessed January 18, 2015).
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. (2011a). Communication dated 5 April 2011. http://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/mysvnm33_09/phl_re_chn_2011.pdf (accessed January 18, 2015).
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. (2011b). Communication dated 14 April 2011. http://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/mysvnm33_09/chn_2011_re_phl_e.pdf (accessed January 18, 2015).
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. (2012). The United Nations convention on the Law of the Sea: A historical perspective. Online at: http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_historical_perspective.htm (accessed January 18, 2015).
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. (2013a). ‘A Constitution for the Oceans’: Remarks by Tommy T.B. Koh, of Singapore, President of the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea. Online at: http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/koh_english.pdf (accessed January 18, 2015).
United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. (2013b). Declarations and statements. Online at: http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_declarations.htm (accessed January 18, 2015).
United Nations. (May 29, 2001). Meeting of state parties. Online at: http://www.un.org/Docs/journal/asp/ws.asp?m=SPLOS/72 (accessed January 18, 2015).
Valencia, M. J., Van Dyke, J. M., & Ludwig, N. A. (1999). Sharing the resources of the South China Sea. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Xinhua.net. (2012, July 24). China establishes Sansha City. Xinhua. Online at: http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2012-07/24/c_131734893.htm (accessed January 18, 2015).
Xue, G. (2008). China and the Law of the Sea: An Update. International Law Studies, 84, 97–110.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Ohnesorge, H.W. (2016). A Sea of Troubles: International Law and the Spitsbergen Plus Approach to Conflict Management in the South China Sea. In: Fels, E., Vu, TM. (eds) Power Politics in Asia’s Contested Waters. Global Power Shift. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-26152-2_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-26152-2_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-26150-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-26152-2
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)