Abstract
This paper examines opportunities to address the financing gap for adaptation in fragile and conflict-affected countries through greater synergies between humanitarian, development and climate finance. Fragile states which have the least capacity to address the challenges of climate change, are often most at risk and vulnerable to its effects. However, the financing gap for adaptation in fragile countries coupled with the risk of renewed conflict linked to climate change is likely to accentuate the existing adaptation divide and create a vicious negative cycle. While creating synergies between different sources of finance is a potentially powerful way to address the adaptation financing gap and avoid mal-adaptation in fragile countries, joint action remains the exception. However, innovative practices to bridge efforts across different sources of finance are emerging in different country contexts, such as Jordan and Mali. As these innovative practices are very recent, it will be critical to leverage their learning potential to fully assess their effectiveness and replicability in similar development settings. Replicability will also be constrained by the differences in perspectives, objectives and financing between the humanitarian, development and climate adaptation communities. The resilience paradigm offers an opportunity to reconcile such differences and facilitate replicability through a shared theory of change across the different communities. The formulation process for the NAPs, which has recently begun in a number of fragile states, potentially provides a practical platform to bring different communities together in support of financing sustainable climate resilient development.
Fiona Bayat-Renoux is a Policy Advisor and Yannick Glemarec is the Deputy Executive Director at the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women). They have worked extensively on climate change, natural disaster management, peace and security and sustainable development finance with both the United Nations Development Programme and UN Women.
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Notes
- 1.
Annually, the OECD complies a list of countries and economies considered to be fragile. This list combines the latest harmonized list of fragile situation published by the World Bank, African Development Bank and Asian Development Bank, and the Fragility State list developed by the Fund for Peace (http://ffp.statesindex.org/), which scores countries based on 12 indicators of risk.
- 2.
The Walter study looked at 103 countries that experienced some form of civil war between 1945 and 2009 and found that only 44 avoided a subsequent return to civil war.
- 3.
These countries are: DRC, Sudan, Somalia, Chad, Yemen and Haiti. Fragile States Index Report (2014). http://library.fundforpeace.org/library/cfsir1423-fragilestatesindex2014-06d.pdf
- 4.
The Climate change vulnerability index has been created by the Center for Global Development. Overall vulnerability is defined as physical impacts adjusted for coping ability. The index draws on a dataset described in Wheeler (2011). http://www.cgdev.org/page/mapping-impacts-climate-change
- 5.
UNEP (2014), highlights that it is unclear how much of adaptation finance reported is ‘new and additional’ given the lack of agreed definition of the terms ‘new’ and ‘additional’ and accounting methods.
- 6.
The National Adaptation Programmes of Actions (NAPAs) supported by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) address, inter alia, (i) disaster risk management; (ii) human health; (iii) food security and agriculture; (iv) water availability, quality and accessibility; (v) essential infrastructure; (vi) economic diversification; (vii) biodiversity and ecosystem management; (viii) land-use management and forestry; (ix) environmental management; (x) cultural heritage; (xi) coastal zones and associated loss of land and (xii) climate-resilient urban development.
- 7.
The global mapping exercise covers relevant pooled financing instruments administered by the UN system, multilateral development banks and multilateral funds with an independent legal status. It does not include pooled financing mechanisms administered by bilateral agencies or private entities. The mapping captured information about pooled funds across five major criteria: fund purpose, scope and size; establishment requirements and timelines; governance structure and decision making; fund allocation, implementation and reporting; and cost structure. Information on UN funds was drawn from the UNDP MPTF Office Gateway (2013) and information on the World Bank from the World Bank Concessional Finance and Global Partnership webpage as well as from its Financial Intermediary Funds: Meeting Global Development Challenges through International Partnerships Report. Information on climate adaptation finance was drawn from the joint UNDP/World Bank platform, which highlights 74 climate funding sources (Climate Finance Options: http://www.climatefinanceoptions.org/cfo/)
- 8.
While ‘stable countries affected by crisis’ are not in conflict, they face certain structural issues, including demographic pressure, group grievances and uneven development, which make them vulnerable to crisis and spillover effects from neighbouring countries. Such countries tend to score between 70.1 and 89.9 on the 2014 Fragile States Index (http://fsi.fundforpeace.org/rankings-2014).
- 9.
Bi-lateral related financial flows per country over the period 2008–2012 and for 2012 have been estimated based on data from the OECD Creditor Reporting System (CRS). Interviews and focus group discussions were used to gather complementary qualitative information on pooled operations in these eight countries. Field visits were carried out to two of the eight countries (DRC and South Sudan).
- 10.
The negative consequences from the lack of land access and titling disproportionally affect women, who are estimated to own less than 2 % of land worldwide (UNEP et al. 2013; Lukatela, 2012). FAO (2011) estimated that if women had the same access to productive resources as men, this could raise total agricultural output in developing countries by 2.5–4 %, which could in turn reduce the number of hungry people in the world by 12–17 %.
- 11.
The Global Partnership for Effective Development Cooperation was established during the Fourth High Level Forum on Aid Effectiveness in Busan in 2011 to ensure that development cooperation has the greatest impact on development results. It brings together a wired range of countries and organizations and its monitoring framework tracks progress on commitments made during the Fourth High Level Forum. The monitoring framework consists of a set of ten indicators, some of which are based on those contained in the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness. Key indicators include the percentage of aid that is on budget and the use of country public financial management and procurement systems. Some fragile states through the g7+ echoed the importance of the use of country systems through the New Deal for Engagement in Fragile States (International Dialogue on Peacebuilding and Statebuilding 2011).
- 12.
The NAP Global Support Programme is a UNDP-UNEP programme financed by the Least Developed Country Fund (LDCF). http://www.undp-alm.org/projects/naps-ldcs. The Least Developed Countries Expert Group (2012) have developed technical guidelines for the NAP process.
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Annex 1: List of Huamanitarian, Development and Climate Change Pooled Financing Mechanisms Reviewed in the Global Mapping (As of 31 December 2013)
Annex 1: List of Huamanitarian, Development and Climate Change Pooled Financing Mechanisms Reviewed in the Global Mapping (As of 31 December 2013)
| Â | Global/regional | Country-based |
|---|---|---|
Humanitarian financing mechanisms | Central Emergency Response Fund (CERF) | Common Humanitarian Funds (CHFs) in Central African Republic (CAR), Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan Emergency Response Funds (ERFs) in Afghanistan, Columbia, DRC, Ethiopia, Haiti, Indonesia, Kenya, Myanmar, Pakistan, State of Palestine, Syria, Yemen, Zimbabwe |
Development financing mechanisms | UN Peacebuilding Fund (PBF) UN Trust Fund for Human Security (UNTFHS) UN Fund for Action Against Sexual Violence in Conflict (UN Action) FAO Technical Cooperation Programme (TCP) United Nations Voluntary Trust Fund for Victims of Trafficking in Persons Two United Nations Voluntary Trust Funds for (i) Victims of Torture and (ii) Contemporary Forms of Slavery World Bank Statebuilding and Peacebuilding Fund (SPF) African Development Bank (AfDB) Fragile States Facility European Union Instrument for Stability Global Agriculture and Food Security Program Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria (Global Fund) Water and Sanitation Program | UN development financed pooled funds Comoros One UN Fund DRC Stabilization and Recovery Fund Ethiopia One Fund UNDG Haiti Reconstruction Fund UNDG Iraq Trust Fund Iraq UNDAF Trust Fund Kiribati One Fund Jordan Relief ad Resilience Fund Kyrgyzstan One Fund Lebanon Recovery Fund Libya Recovery Trust Fund Malawi One Fund Mali National Economic and Social Stabilization Fund UN Peace Fund for Nepal Occupied Palestinian Territory Trust Fund Pakistan One Fund Rwanda One UN Fund Sierra Leone Multi-Donor Trust Fund Somalia UN Multi-Partner Trust Fund South Sudan Recovery Fund Sudan: Darfur Community Peace and Stability Fund Sudan: UN Fund for Recovery, Reconstruction and Development in Darfur Syria Transition and Recovery Trust Fund Yemen National Dialogue and Constitutional Reform Trust Fund World Bank Trust Fund Programs Afghanistan Reconstruction Trust Fund National MDTF Sudan MDTF South Sudan |
Climate change financing mechanisms | Adaptation The Global Environment Trust Fund (GEF) Least Developed Countries Fund for Climate Change (LDCF) Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) UNFCCC Adaptation Fund Adaptation for Smallholder Agriculture Programme (ASAP) Pilot Program for Climate Resilience (PPCR) Asian Development Bank (ADB) Climate Change Fund (CCF) Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) MDG Achievement Fund Energy Access Focused Funds ClimDev-Africa Special Fund (CDSF) End User Finance for Access to Clean Energy Technologies in South and South-East Asia (FACET) Global Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Fund (GEEREF) Strategic Climate Fund Program on Scaling-Up Renewable Energy in Low Income Countries (SREP) Pilot Program for Climate Resilience (PPCR) Sustainable Energy Fund for Africa (SEFA) The Seed Capital Assistance Facility (SCAF) | National Climate Funds Mali Climate Fund Ethiopia Climate Resilient Green Economy Facility Micronesia Conservation Trust Bangladesh Climate Change Trust Fund Bangladesh Climate Change Resilience Fund Rwanda National Climate and Environment Fund (FONERWA) |
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Bayat-Renoux, F., Glemarec, Y. (2016). Addressing the Financing Gap for Adaptation in Fragile and Conflict-Affected Countries. In: Leal Filho, W. (eds) Innovation in Climate Change Adaptation. Climate Change Management. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25814-0_24
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