Abstract
This chapter develops a criticism of the current ideological conception of science as a purely cognitive activity, one which objectively reflects the true structure of nature and is superior to other forms of knowledge as the result of its rigorous method. Science is, instead, a historical process, arising from concrete persons who act in concrete environments. Modern science is a product of Western society in its capitalistic phase of development and thus has subsumed the same logic of exploitation both of nature and of the human labour force. The vast majority of scientists under every regime have acted as accomplices of power. This attitude is exacerbated by the falling rate of profit in the current crisis and is becoming absolutely unsustainable. Technique has become a “second nature,” deeply conditioning our lives and acting as a diaphragm with respect to nature. To orient science toward human development and truly ecological purposes, it is currently more important to analyse the limits, rather than the undeniable power, of science, its drawbacks rather than its benefits. An appalling portion of scientists work on war programs, making war increasingly terrible, and they are not denounced inside the scientific community. In this framework, the chapter analyses in particular the threat to global human health conditions—the “Epidemiological Revolution of the 20th century,” the inadequacy of the prevailing reductionist medical paradigm, and the need for a new biomedical paradigm and practice.
Higher intelligence is an error of evolution, unable to survive for more than a short instant in the evolutionary history (Ernst Mayr)
The sleep of reason produces monsters (Francisco Goya)
Nature to be commanded must be obeyed (Francis Bacon)
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Notes
- 1.
I recall the prevailing positions in the Italian Communist Party and the Unions in favour of nuclear power, opposed to the majority of the Italian population, which in two occasions (1987 and 2011) voted massively against it.
A recent instance of dogmatic acceptance of the dominant scientific ideology is given by the resolution approved in November 2012 by the Spanish left-wing political coalition Izquierda Unida, which rejected all “natural” therapies, inasmuch as not “scientifically based.” The decision indiscriminately bundled up such disciplines as Bach’s Flowers, osteopathy, homeopathy, acupuncture, reflexology, and the traditional Chinese medicine. The latter is based on thousands of years of rigorous observation and checks, although it is based on “scientific” criteria that are different, but not necessarily worse, from the modern scientific approach: ignoring that Western medicine, apart from being associated with one particular “scientific” approach, supports the big interests of the medical class and the pharmaceutical industry. In contrast, in Cuba—where the modern biomedical and biotechnological sector underwent a big development at top world levels—“natural,” or “green,” medicine has been promoted, especially in the deep economic difficulties following the collapse of the Soviet Union.
- 2.
I refer to the essay of Baracca et al. (1979).
- 3.
Marx and Engels wrote in The German Ideology (1845), polemizing with Feuerbach: “the sensuous world … is, not a thing given directly from all eternity, remaining ever the same, but the product of industry and of the state of society … in the sense that it is a historical product”; “The cherry-tree, like almost all fruit-trees was, as is well known, transplanted by commerce into our zone, and therefore only by this action of a definite society in a definite age [it has become “sensuous certainty” for Feuerbach]” (Marx and Engels 1970).
- 4.
These aspects were developed in details in an Italian essay: Baracca and Rossi (1976).
- 5.
Along with Joseph Needham (1900–1995) (Needham 1954), the peculiar social structure of “mandarinate” did not express the need for a quantitative kind of knowledge.
- 6.
Sian Sullivan, The Natural Capital Myth, http://ppel.arizona.edu/blog/2013/03/15/natural-capital-myth#_edn1
- 7.
“No to Biodiversity Offsetting!”, http://no-biodiversity-offsets.makenoise.org/
- 8.
For example, for the UK, http://www.fern.org/Ukbiodiversityconsultation; the EU No net loss initiative, http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/biodiversity/nnl/pdf/Subgroup_NNL_Scope_Objectives.pdf; the World Bank Study of Biodiversity Offsets, http://www.profor.info/sites/profor.info/files/docs/OFFSETS-PUBLIC%20INFORMATION%20NOTE.pd8f
- 9.
Literature on the subject is countless; see 86 Percent of Earth’s Species Still Unknown? for example, http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/08/110824-earths-species-8-7-million-biology-planet-animals-science/ ;Most Earth species ‘still unknown’, Brazil expert says, Feb 26, 2013, http://phys.org/news/2013-02-earth-species-unknown-brazil-expert.html
- 10.
An historical verdict, the first in the world, from the Court of First Instance of Turin (Italy) on 13/02/2012 convicted the top brass of Eternit to 16 years of jail. They have obviously appealed against the verdict.
- 11.
The “museum of horrors” of the development of innovative military developments goes beyond imagination: it sounds awful, as an example, that after the artificial drones, there is a race to develop “insect cyborgs,” flying by remote control! (see Anthes 2013).
- 12.
“Labour is, in the first place, a process in which both man and Nature participate, and in which man of his own accord starts, regulates, and controls the material re-actions between himself and Nature. He opposes himself to Nature as one of her own forces, setting in motion arms and legs, head and hands, the natural forces of his body, in order to appropriate Nature’s productions in a form adapted to his own needs. By thus acting on the external world and changing it, he at the same time changes his own nature.” (K. Marx, Capital, 1867, Vol. I, Cap, 5, Sect. 1).
- 13.
- 14.
Not to speak of patients, or entire populations, used as guinea pigs to test the effects of drugs or other substances.
- 15.
In China, for instance, sophisticated and expensive air-purifying systems and domes spread (Toh et al. 2013).
- 16.
Reservations concerning the claimed benefits of human “progress” are not limited to industrial societies. For instance, the “Neolithic revolution,” with the transition of humankind from gathering and hunting to agriculture, usually considered as the first stage of human civilization, has been deemed by the anthropologist Jared Diamond as “the worst error in the history of human species” (Diamond 1997). Another anthropologist, Tom Sandage, confirms that this transition worsened human life, because the hunters-pickers had a more balanced diet and were healthier than the farmers (life expectancy is estimated to have lowered from 26 years for the former to 19 for the latter (Sandage 2009).
- 17.
“Life expectancy of the Russian Federation since 1950.” Demoscope.ru. 26 April 2011. Retrieved 14 May 2011; Stuckler et al. (2009), http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2809%2960005-2/fulltext
- 18.
Greece, life expectancy at birth, http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2809%2960005-2/fulltext
- 19.
A systematic discussion, with an extremely wide bibliography, is given in an Italian monograph by Ernsto Burgio addressed to a medical organization, from which we have extracted the biomedical information synthesized in this paper (Burgio 2013). An English revised edition is forthcoming.
- 20.
In 2008 it was calculated that almost 90–180 million kg/year are used, enough for 25 billion complete treatments: they are mainly (ab)used in the agricultural/zootechnical field.
- 21.
As I know, there are not many analyses with this approach. My direct reference is again to Ernesto Burgio (2003). Some further references are given in the following.
- 22.
Concerning pandemics, it is convenient to remark that, in the situation in which we are, the occurrence of a true and deadly one, which could mow down millions in death, caused by the rapid adaptation and changes of the orthomyxovirus strain (which originated the “Spanish influenza” that caused between 20 and 40 million deaths in 1918), and the possibility of its “species jump,” is only a matter of probability, that is, of time. In this respect one has to denounce once more the irresponsible behavior of Biopharma and the authorities which support its business, in declaring fake pandemic warnings, inducing the preparation and selling of millions of vaccines: when the true pandemics explode, the vaccine could be late in arriving, and moreover could be in part frustrated by further rapid transformations of the virus. Much more effective against the spread and the virulence of the disease, and beneficial for the whole community (but evidently opposed to the main economic interests), would be the worldwide reinforcement of health structures, hygiene, and prevention, beginning with the poor and underdeveloped countries.
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Acknowledgements
I have a deep debt to Dr. Ernesto Burgio for all he has taught me about epigenetics and the environmental origin of diseases. I am grateful to Ana Simōes for her careful corrections of language in my manuscript.
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Baracca, A. (2015). Can Science Make Peace with the Environment? Science, Power, Exploitation. In: Arabatzis, T., Renn, J., Simões, A. (eds) Relocating the History of Science. Boston Studies in the Philosophy and History of Science, vol 312. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14553-2_25
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