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Geophysical Methods for the Assessment of Earthen Dams

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Advances in Water Resources Engineering

Part of the book series: Handbook of Environmental Engineering ((HEE,volume 14))

Abstract

Dams and levees are an integral part of the fluvial system in watersheds. The structural integrity of this infrastructure is of concern to the nation and to those directly impacted should failure occur. There are some 88,000 dams and 110,000 miles of levees in the USA. Many of those are earthen embankments and structures subject to failure by seepage and overtopping especially under extreme conditions of rainfall, runoff from contributing source areas, and snowmelt. They require routine inspection and the availability of technologies to assess their stability and safety conditions. This chapter discusses in a comprehensive manner the various geophysical and geotechnical techniques, and related technologies that are capable of rapidly assessing the integrity and stability of dams and levees. This chapter also discusses the underlying principles of these techniques. Finally, it presents case studies in which these techniques were used.

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Abbreviations

\(\alpha \) :

attenuation constant

\(a\) :

tortuosity

\(A\) :

cross-sectional area (m2)

ACWI:

Advisory Committee on Water Information

\({\text{AM}}\) :

distance between electrode A to M

\({\text{AN}}\) :

distance between electrode A to N

\(\beta \) :

phase factor

\(B\) :

equivalent conductance of counterions as a function of pore-fluid conductivity

\({\text{BM}}\) :

distance between electrode B to M

\({\text{BN}}\) :

distance between electrode B to N

\(c\) :

speed of electrical field propagation

\({C_{\text{c}}}\) :

clay content

\({\text{CEC}}\) :

cation-exchange capacity

\(\delta \) :

skin depth

\(E\) :

Young’s modulus

\({E_{\text{x}}}\) :

X-component of electrical field

\({E_{{\text{x}}0}}\) :

X-component of electrical field at z = 0

\(\varepsilon \) :

electrical permittivity

\({\varepsilon_0}\) :

permittivity of free space

\({\varepsilon_{\text{r}}}\) :

dielectric constant

\(f\) :

frequency

\(F\) :

formation factor

\({F^*}\) :

formation factor for Shaley Sand

\(G\) :

shear modulus

\({G_{\text{d}}}\) :

dry shear modulus

\({G_{\text{s}}}\) :

saturated shear modulus

\(h\) :

layer thickness

\(H\) :

magnetic field intensity

\({H_{\text{p}}}\) :

primary magnetic field

\({H_{\text{s}}}\) :

secondary magnetic field

\(I\) :

measured current

\(K\) :

geometrical factor representing electrode configuration

\({K_{\text{b}}}\) :

bulk modulus of soil mineral grain

\({K_{\text{d}}}\) :

bulk modulus of dry rock

\({K_{\text{f}}}\) :

bulk modulus of fluid

\({K_{\text{g}}}\) :

bulk modulus of gas

\({K_{\text{l}}}\) :

bulk modulus of liquid

\({K_{{\text{sat}}}}\) :

bulk modulus of saturated rock

\(\kappa \) :

propagation constant

L:

length (m)

\(\lambda \) :

Lamé constant

\(\lambda_{{\text{Na}}}^{\text{e}}\) :

maximum equivalent ionic conductance of sodium exchange ions

\(m\) :

cementation exponent

MASW:

multichannel analysis of surface waves

\(\mu \) :

magnetic permeability

\({\mu_0}\) :

permeability of free space

\(n\) :

saturation exponent

\({N_{\text{B}}}\) :

induction number

NCLS:

National Committee on Levee Safety

NID:

National Inventory of Dams

NLD:

National Levee Database

NRCS:

Natural Resources Conservation Service

\(\nu \) :

Poisson’s ratio

\({P_{\text{c}}}\) :

capillary pressure

\({P_{\text{f}}}\) :

primary field

\({P_{\text{t}}}\) :

threshold pressure

\({Q_{\text{v}}}\) :

concentration of sodium exchange cations associated with clay

R :

electrical resistance (ohms)

RESUS-II:

Reservoir Sedimentation Information System

RESSED:

Reservoir Sedimentation Database

\({R_{\text{f}}}\) :

resultant field

\(\rho \) :

electrical resistivity (Ωm)

\({\rho_{\text{b}}}\) :

bulk electrical resistivity

\({\rho_{\text{w}}}\) :

pore-fluid resistivity

SASW:

spectral analysis of surface waves

SCS:

Soil Conservation Service

\({S_{\text{f}}}\) :

secondary field

\({S_{{\text{irr}}}}\) :

irreducible water saturation

SOS:

Federal Interagency Subcommittee on Sedimentation

\({S_{\text{w}}}\) :

degree of water saturation

\(\sigma \) :

electrical conductivity

\({\sigma_{\text{e}}}\) :

conductivity due to clay fraction

\({\sigma_{\text{o}}}\) :

bulk conductivity of fully saturated soil

\({\sigma_{\text{w}}}\) :

conductivity of pore-fluid

USACE:

US Army Corps of Engineers

USCS:

Unified Soil Classification System

USDI-BR:

US Department of Interior-Bureau of Reclamation

USGS:

US Geological Survey

\(\Delta V\) :

potential voltage difference (volts)

\({v_1}\) :

velocity of top layer

\({v_2}\) :

velocity of half space

\({v_{\text{R}}}\) :

velocity of Rayleigh waves

\({v_{\text{p}}}\) :

velocity of P-waves

\({v_{\text{s}}}\) :

velocity of S-waves

\({V_{\text{T}}}\) :

total volume

\({V_{\text{V}}}\) :

volume of voids (pore space)

\(\phi \) :

porosity

\({x_{\text{c}}}\) :

crossover distance

\({\chi_{\text{e}}}\) :

electrical susceptibility

\({\chi_{\text{m}}}\) :

magnetic susceptibility

\(\omega \) :

time-harmonic frequency

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. National Center for Physical Acoustics, University of Mississippi, P. O. Box 1848, 38677–1848, University, MS, USA

    Craig J. Hickey Ph.D. & Leti Wodajo

  2. USDA ARS National Sedimentation Laboratory, P. O. Box 1157, Oxford, MS, USA

    Mathias J. M. Römkens Ph.D. & Robert R. Wells Ph.D.

Authors
  1. Craig J. Hickey Ph.D.
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  2. Mathias J. M. Römkens Ph.D.
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  3. Robert R. Wells Ph.D.
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  4. Leti Wodajo
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Craig J. Hickey Ph.D. .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA

    Chih Ted Yang

  2. Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA

    Lawrence K. Wang

Glossary

Abutment

connecting element or structure used for support.

Algorithm

step-by-step procedure for calculations.

Anion

negatively charged ion that is attracted to the anode in electrolysis.

Bulk modulus

material resistance to uniform compression.

Catastrophic failure

sudden and total failure of some system from which recovery is impossible.

Cation

positively charged ion that is attracted to the cathode in electrolysis.

Cementation

hardening and welding of sediments by the precipitation of mineral matter in the pore spaces. Affects porosity and permeability.

Conductivity

measure of the ease at which an electric charge or heat can pass through a material.

Connectivity

degree to which movement is facilitated or impeded.

Counterions

ion that accompanies an ionic species in order to maintain electric neutrality.

Dam

barrier that impounds water.

Dielectric constant

ratio of permittivity of a substance to the permittivity of free space.

Domain

set of input or argument values for which a function is defined.

Earthen structure

refers to a host of artificial structures constructed using earthen (soil, rock, etc.) materials.

Economic lifetime

period over which an asset is expected to be useable, with normal repairs and maintenance.

Electrode

electrical conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit.

Embankment

an artificial bank raised above the immediately surrounding land to redirect or prevent flooding by a river, lake, or sea.

Erosion

process by which soil and rock are removed by the action of wind and water.

Flood control

all methods used to reduce or prevent the detrimental effects of flood waters.

Formation

process of orderly grouping.

Frequency

number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time.

Geophone

device that converts ground movement into voltage.

Geophysics

study of earth materials using quantitative physical methods.

Geotechnical

study of the behavior of earth materials.

hydrous aluminum phyllosilicates

clay minerals.

Hydraulic

study of the mechanical properties of liquids.

Instability

the tendency to behave in an unpredictable, changeable, or erratic manner.

Interferometric

techniques in which waves are superimposed in order to extract information about the waves.

Ionic conductance

movement of an ion from one site to another.

Levee

elongated naturally occurring ridge or artificially constructed wall that regulates water levels.

Overtopping

to extend or rise over or beyond the top of a dam or levee.

Permeability

measure of the ability of a porous material to allow fluids to pass through it.

Permittivity

measure of the resistance that is encountered when forming an electric field in a medium.

Phreatic surface

commonly called the water table. Location where the pressure head is zero.

Piping

soils being washed out of an earthen structure through an unfiltered exit.

Porosity

measure of the empty pore spaces in a material. Defined as the ratio between the volume of voids (i.e., empty pore space) and the total volume.

Potential

energy stored in a system of forcefully interacting physical entities.

Reservoir

a natural or artificial lake, storage pond, or impoundment from a dam which is used to store water.

Resistance

opposition to the passage of electrical current.

Resistivity

an intrinsic property of a material, measured as its resistance to current per unit length for a uniform cross section.

Saturation

the ratio of the volume of a particular fluid to the total volume of the void space.

Sedimentation basin

earthen or concrete structure using sedimentation to remove settleable matter and turbidity.

Seepage

process of liquid leaking through a porous substance.

Seismic refraction

investigates the subsurface by generating arrival time and offset distance information to determine the path and velocity of the elastic disturbance in the ground.

Seismograph

instrument for measuring and recording the vibrations of earthquakes.

Shear modulus

ratio of stress to strain that describes deformation that takes place when a force is applied parallel to one face of an object while the opposite face is held fixed.

sodium exchange capacity

measure of the soil’s ability to hold and release sodium.

Sounding

a mechanism of probing the environment by sending out some kind of stimulus.

Spillway

structure used to provide controlled release of flows from a dam or levee into a downstream area.

Survey

a method of collecting quantitative and qualitative information.

Tomography

imaging by sections or sectioning through the use of a penetrating wave.

Tortuosity

degree to which a path is curved.

Water recreation

diving, fishing, swimming, surfing, etc.

Water-retarding structure

designed to hold back water to prevent downstream flooding.

Water supply

provision of water by public utilities, commercial organizations, community endeavors, or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes.

Wavenumber

spatial frequency of a wave.

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Hickey, C., Römkens, M., Wells, R., Wodajo, L. (2015). Geophysical Methods for the Assessment of Earthen Dams. In: Yang, C., Wang, L. (eds) Advances in Water Resources Engineering. Handbook of Environmental Engineering, vol 14. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-11023-3_7

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