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Transgendered Male Androphilia in the Human Ancestral Environment

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The Evolution of Sexuality

Part of the book series: Evolutionary Psychology ((EVOLPSYCH))

Abstract

Androphilia refers to predominant sexual attraction and arousal to adult males, whereas gynephilia refers to predominant sexual attraction and arousal to adult females. The manner in which male androphilia is expressed varies cross-culturally. Sex-gender congruent male androphiles occupy the gender role typical of their sex, behave in a relatively masculine manner, and identify as “men.” In contrast, transgendered male androphiles often behave in a highly effeminate manner and identify as neither “men,” nor “women.” Instead, they typically identify as members of a third gender. Despite exhibiting different gender role presentations and gender identities, both forms of male androphilia are characterized by the same biodemographic and developmental correlates, indicating that they share a common etiological basis. Male androphilia represents an evolutionary paradox because it appears to have a genetic component, yet it compromises reproduction and archaeological evidence suggests that it has persisted for millennia. The ancestral form of male androphilia was likely the transgendered form. To date, only one population of transgendered male androphiles has been considered when testing hypotheses pertaining to the evolution of male androphilia: the fa’afafine of Samoa. Research indicates that the mothers, paternal grandmothers, and maternal grandmothers of fa’afafine produce more offspring than those of male gynephiles, which is consistent with the Sexually Antagonistic Gene Hypothesis. However, definitive support for this hypothesis, in the form of elevated offspring production by the aunts of fa’afafine is lacking at present. Research also indicates that fa’afafine exhibit elevated avuncular tendencies and behavior compared to women and gynephilic men, which is consistent with the Kin Selection Hypothesis. Also consistent with the Kin Selection Hypothesis is research indicating that the fa’afafine’s avuncular cognition exhibits elements of adaptive design.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The fraternal birth order effect refers to the well-established finding that the number of older biological brothers increases the odds of androphilia in later born males (Blanchard 2004; Bogaert and Skorska 2011).

  2. 2.

    The Hidasta are a native North American people that lived in palisaded villages along the modern-day Missouri River in North Dakota.

  3. 3.

    “Residential group” refers to the same camp or settlement within which people regularly reside.

  4. 4.

    Hunter-gatherers exhibit a high degree of residential mobility, which is expressed in terms of a fission-fusion type of group organization whereby the group breaks apart into smaller foraging parties, which then reassemble each day into larger aggregates (Marlowe 2005).

  5. 5.

    Beginning in the 1700s, after the Spanish introduction of the horse, various North American Plains Indian ethnolinguistic groups subsequently became specialists in hunting bison from horseback (Shimkin 1983). This specialization in foraging pattern influenced the group sizes, home ranges, hunting success rates, and travel costs of these groups. Because we are interested in reconstructing the sociocultural environment of ancestral humans prior to the domestication of the horse, we do not consider data from equestrian hunter-gatherers here.

  6. 6.

    It is only during the last 30,000 years that the arctic has been occupied by modern Homo sapiens (Vaughan 1994). Occupation of this biome had concomitant influences on residential group size. Consequently, Marlow (2005) argues that if we are interested in the period prior to 30,000 years ago, it is reasonable to exclude arctic foragers from analysis pertaining to residential group size.

  7. 7.

    A religion is Shamanic when a shaman is the center of most religious practice, a strong belief in animism is present, there are no calendrical rites, and laypersons rely on a shaman as the sole intermediary between themselves and the supernatural (Sanderson and Roberts 2008).

  8. 8.

    Animism refers to the belief that spirits inhabit some or all natural objects and phenomena.

  9. 9.

    The SCCS provides data related to a subset of the world’s non-industrial societies and is employed to circumvents Galton’s problem (i.e., common cultural derivation and cultural diffusion) when conducting cross-cultural comparisons.

  10. 10.

    This hypothesis is also referred to as the “Balanced Polymorphism Hypothesis” for male androphilia.

  11. 11.

    In bilateral descent systems, ego’s mother’s and father’s lineages are equally important for emotional, social, spiritual, and political support, as well as for transfer of property or wealth.

  12. 12.

    In double descent systems, individuals receive some rights and obligations from the father’s side of the family and others from the mother’s side.

  13. 13.

    Some sources treat ambilineal and bilateral descent systems as synonymous, but ambilineal descent systems are defined as existing when individuals have the option of choosing one of their lineages for membership.

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Acknowledgements

We thank Resitara Apa, Jean-Baptiste Leca, Nancy Bartlett, Gardenia Elisaia, Vaosa Epa, Vaasatia Poloma Komiti, Anita Latai, Sarah Faletoese Su’a, Vester Fido Collins, Liulauulu Faaleolea Ah Fook, Tyrone Laurenson, Gaualofa Matalavea, Avau Memea, Nella Tavita-Levy, Palanitina Toelupe, Trisha Tuiloma, Avalogo Togi A. Tunupopo, the Kuka family of Savai’i, the Samoan AIDS Foundation, the National University of Samoa, the Samoan Ministry of Health, and the Government of Samoa. We are grateful to all of the individuals who agreed to participate in our studies. We extend special thanks to Alatina Ioelu without whom this research could not have been conducted. Our research on the evolution of male androphilia has taken place over the past decade and has been supported by the University of Lethbridge and a variety of funding agencies. PLV received funding from an Alberta Provincial Government S.T.E.P. Award, an Alberta Innovates Health Solutions (AIHS) Sustainability Fund Grant, a Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) Catalyst Grant in Methods and Measures for Gender, Sex and Health, three Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada Grants, and a Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) Grant. DPV received funding from a NSERC of Canada Graduate Scholarship-D3, the Sigma Xi Scientific Research Society Grant-in-Aid-of-Research, a Ralph Steinhauer Award of Distinction, an American Psychological Foundation Henry David Travel Grant, and a Sexual Medicine Society of North America Post-Doctoral Fellowship Stipend.

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  1. Department of Psychology, University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, T1K 3M4, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada

    Paul L. Vasey

  2. Gender Identity Service, Child, Youth and Family Services, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Beamish Family Wing, Intergenerational Wellness Centre, 80 Workman Way, 5th Floor, M6J 1H4, Toronto, ON, Canada

    Doug P. VanderLaan

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  2. Doug P. VanderLaan
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Correspondence to Paul L. Vasey .

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  1. Department of Psychology, Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan, USA

    Todd K. Shackelford

  2. Department of Psychology, Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan, USA

    Ranald D. Hansen

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Vasey, P., VanderLaan, D. (2015). Transgendered Male Androphilia in the Human Ancestral Environment. In: Shackelford, T., Hansen, R. (eds) The Evolution of Sexuality. Evolutionary Psychology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09384-0_9

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