Abstract
From ancient times, before the Roman invasion, many regions of the Iberian Peninsula had matrilinear and matrifocal structures. A combination of different matrilinear and matrifocal cultures coexisted in Spain and survived after the collapse of the Roman Empire of the West in 476 C.E. and the consolidation of Visigoth rule. The numerous contacts of Spain with North Africa and the Atlantic coast reveal high levels of genetic diversity and maternal heritage from Neolithic times, particularly through the Strait of Gibraltar. The influence of North African Berber tribes and groups played an important role before and after the Arab-Berber conquest of Spain in 711 C.E. in the dynamics of the complex social tissue of al-Andalus due to the interaction with existing matrilinear structures and traditions, particularly in the area of family law and marriage customs.
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Notes
- 1.
Sarah Lowes, Sarah, “Matrilineal Kinship and Spousal Cooperation: Evidence from the Matrilineal Belt”, Stanford University, King Center on Global Development and CIFAR, 2020. Working paper available at: https://cega.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Lowes_PacDev2020.pdf.
- 2.
Candela L. Hernández et al., “Human maternal heritage in Andalusia (Spain): its composition reveals high internal complexity and distinctive influences of mtDNA haplogroups U6 and L in the western and eastern side of region,” BMC Genetics 15:11 (2014).
- 3.
Hernández et al., “Human maternal heritage in Andalusia,” 4.
- 4.
Tim Marshall, Prisoners of Geography, Ten Maps that tell you everything you need to know about global politics, (London: Elliot & Thompson Limited, 2015), 124.
- 5.
George Murdock, Ethnographic Atlas, Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh University Press, 1967.
- 6.
Ibn Khaldun, Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties Musulmanes de l’Afrique septentrionale, French trans. Baron de Slane, Paris: Librarie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, 1925.
- 7.
L. R. Botigue et al., “Gene flow from North Africa contributes to differential human genetic diversity in southern Europe,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110 (2013), 11,791–6; N. Harich, N. et al., “The trans-Saharan slave trade—clues from interpolation analyses and high-resolution characterization of mitochondrial DNA lineages,” BMC Evolutionary Biology 10: 138 (2010).
- 8.
For a full discussion on whether the term “Berber” in Roman sources may be equated to the use of the word after the Islamisation and Arabisation of Berber populations: Ramzi Rouighi, “The Berber of the Arabs”, Studia Islamica 106 (2011), 49–76.
- 9.
Cynthia Becker, Arts in Morocco: Women shaping Berber identity (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2006), 5–9.
- 10.
Becker, Arts in Morocco, 209.
- 11.
Malika Hachid, Les Premiers Berbères: entre Méditerranée, Tassili et Nil, Paris: Edisud, 2000.
- 12.
H. B. Côrte-Real et al., “Genetic diversity in the Iberian Peninsula determined from mitochondrial sequence analysis”, Annuals of Human Genetics 60 (1996), 331–50. Also Hernández et al., “Human maternal heritage in Andalusia”, 3.
- 13.
María Elena Díez Jorge, Mujeres y arquitectura: Mudéjares y cristianas en la construcción, Granada: Universidad de Granada, 2011. The author discusses one of these intersections related to the role of Christian and Muslim women in the creation of what may be considered as one of the most original architectural styles in Spanish art, Mudéjar Style (mudajan, or ahl al-dajn), which strongly reveals the culture of syncretism of the Iberian Peninsula by combining technical, ornamental, and decorative elements originating in Islamic art with Romanesque, Gothic, and Renaissance architectural styles that were current in the Christian kingdoms of Iberia.
- 14.
Peter Brown, The World of Late Antiquity: AD 150–750, New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1989.
- 15.
Quesada Sanz, Fernando, “Los Iberos y la cultura Ibérica”, in Sebastian Celestino Pérez (ed.) La Protohistoria en la Península Ibérica (Madrid: Ediciones Akal, 2017), 441–62. As Professor Quesada Sanz points out: “After more than one century of archaeological research, what we know on an intuitive basis about ‘Iberian culture, the culture of the ancient Iberians’, in fact, is an equivocal and confusing intellectual construct”. However, Greek historians such as Dionysius of Halicarnassus or Herodotus referred in their writings to Spain and Portugal as the Iberian Peninsula. It is worth noting that the Kingdom of Colchis and the Iberians (subsequently, the Kingdom of Iberia) located in present-day Eastern Georgia are mentioned in The Histories of Herodotus.
- 16.
Carolina López-Ruiz, “Tarshish and Tartessos Revisited: Textual Problems and Historical Implications” in: Colonial Encounters in Ancient Iberia: Phoenician, Greek, and Indigenous Relations (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2009), 255–80.
- 17.
Adolf Schulten, Hispania: Geografía, Etnología e Historia, Seville: Editorial Renacimiento, 2017.
- 18.
Charles Malamoud, Féminité de la parole, études sur l’Inde ancienne (Paris: Albin Michel, 2005), 264: “ce qui importe dans le mariage sine manu ou par inclination mutuelle, c’est que la femme est libre. S’il existe un espace où la femme est livre, c’est celui ou l’entraîne le guerrier (…); le mariage gāndharva des texts indiens, mariage d’amour et de libre choix mutuel est, en fait rémplacé, dans le récits qui concernent les hommes pour le svayamvara, qui permet à la femme non pas de choisir mais de prendre pour époux l’homme qui sortira vainqueur d’une série d’épreuves sportives et martials.” The works of Dumézil on the nature of Indo-European sovereignty also cited by the author and the major research conducted by Benveniste in his seminal work, Vocabulary of Indoeuropean Institutions, provide valuable insight into many legal rites and customs inherited from the Indo-European tradition which may be traced to Pre-Roman settlements in Spain.
- 19.
Julio Caro Baroja, Los Pueblos de España (Madrid: Ediciones Istmo, 1976), 34: “[A]ccording to the legal practitioner of the seventeenth century, Jacques de Bela (1585–1667), the fact that women could inherit with the same legal rights as men must be traced to the agricultural conditions of the Basque people of his time. The strict law of the first born right to inheritance, or the freedom by the parents to choose an heir, whether male or female, is explained because any of them is capable of managing the family home and estate, considering that men and women share all tasks equally.”
- 20.
Johann Jakob Bachofen, Mitología arcaica y derecho materno, Spanish trans. Begoña Ariño (Barcelona: Editorial Anthropos, 1988), 170–1.
- 21.
Mar Llinares García, Los lenguajes del silencio. Arqueologías de la religión (Madrid: Ediciones Akal, 2012), 80 and ff.
- 22.
Lyn Webster Wilde, Celtic women in legend, myth and history, New York: Sterling Publishing Co., 1997.
- 23.
Caro Baroja, Los Pueblos de España, 25: “While in the cities of the Ebro Christianity soon dislodged the previous religions, the mountain Basques insistently maintained their pagan beliefs, so that it can be said that even in the ninth century, there were probably very few Christians in Guipúzcoa, Vizcaya and the extreme north of Navarre”.
- 24.
Johann Jakob Bachofen, Versuch über die Gräbersymbolik der Alten, Basel: G. Detloff, 1859.
- 25.
Arturo Sánchez Sanz “The theoretical development of matriarchy in nineteenth century,” Boletín del Museo Arqueológico Nacional 37 (2018), 221–38. In the conclusions of this interesting paper, which summarises the discussion of matriarchy by different schools of thought from the nineteenth century to the present day, the author points out that “[b]e that as it may, for more than two centuries, the idea of matriarchy in primitive societies has become one of the most important challenges for modern thought, occupying the debates of the most illustrious anthropologists, philosophers, historians, ethnographers, etc. from all over the world”.
- 26.
Kiril Petkov, The Kiss of Peace: Ritual, Self, and Society in the High and Late Medieval West (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 82. Also refer to Judith G. Evans “Emperor Constantine” in John Witte Jr. and Gary S. Hauk (eds.) Christianity and Family Law: An Introduction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 36–51. The writings of C.G. Jung regarding the Mother Archetype which resides in every human psyche must be taken from a symbolic perspective and embrace widely varying types of the mother-goddess. One of the major references regarding this symbolic perspective may be found in Erich Neumann, The Great Mother an analysis of the archetype (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1963), 168: “This matriarchal significance of the Feminine is far older than the ‘agricultural phase’, from which the sociological school has attempted to derivate the matriarchate. It was not only the agricultural age with its ritual of sacred marriage and rain magic, but also and especially the primordial era and the hunting magic pertaining to it which served to shape the matriarchal world whose later offshoots we encounter in early primitive cultures.” See also Carl G. Jung, Archetypen: Urbilder und Wirkkräfte des kollektiven Unbewussten (Zürich: Edition C. G. Jung im Patmos Verlag, 2019).
- 27.
It is worth noting that many parallels have been established between ancient Georgian traditions and Basque customs. Ivane Javakhishvili, Niko Berzenishvili and Simon Janashia, Saqartvelos istoria udzvebsi droidan XIX saukunis damgedamde (History of Georgia from Antiquity to the nineteenth century), (Tbilisi: Soviet Socialist Republic of Georgia Press, 1943), 7–8: “In Neolithic times Georgians lived in separate ‘homes’. The ‘home’ was a large family comprising the relatives belonging to the mother’s side of the family who lived all under the same roof. The grouping of different ‘homes’ constituted an independent community and the grouping of the communities linked by kinship ties was considered a tribe. Their main occupation was agricultural tasks supervised by women. The family was also headed by an older woman, called ‘diasaxlisi’ (mother of the house). The diasaxlisi also took care of any type of work and tasks inside and outside the home. Matriarchy dominated Georgian society at that time, which is still reflected in words such as ‘Gutnisdeda’ (mother of the plough). We may infer therefore that ploughing and sowing were tasks conducted by women. There is also an ancient word for woman ‘dedakatsi’ (male mother), whose origin may be traced to the matriarchal period.”
- 28.
Luis Rubio Hernansáez, “Los Astures y los inicios de la monarquía Astur (una aproximación)”, Antigüedad y Cristianismo 13 (1997), 299–319. For a discussion on the social and economic background of the Astures, Abilio Barbero de Aguilera and Marcelo Vigil, “La organización social de los cántabros y sus transformaciones en relación con los orígenes de la Reconquista” Hispania Antiqua 1 (1971), 197–232. For matrilinear traces in the Middle Ages, see also Abilio Barbero, “Pervivencias matrilineales en la Europa medieval: el ejemplo del norte de España” in Yves-René Fonquerne and Alfonso Esteban (eds.) La condición de la mujer en la Edad Media: Actas del Coloquio de la Casa de Velázquez (Madrid: Universidad Computense, 1984), 215–22.
- 29.
Jan Brøgger and David D. Gilmore, “The Matrifocal Family in Iberia: Spain and Portugal Compared,” Ethnology: An international journal of cultural and social anthropology, 36: 1 (1997), 13–80. The matrifocal view is also supported by the research of Carmelo Lisón, Teoría etnográfica de Galicia. Antropología cultural de Galicia, Madrid: Ediciones Akal, 2018.
- 30.
Rafael Gibert, Historia General del Derecho Español (Madrid: Copigraf, S.L., 1974), 16–17. Also, for an overview of Visigothic Law in Spain, see P.D. King, Law and Society in the Visigothic Kingdom, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972.
- 31.
Others, such as Dargun and Zmigrodski, decided to focus their research on the linguistic analysis of the Proto-Indo-European language to argue that the Aryan people were initially organised in a matriarchal system. Michal Zmigrodski, Die Mutter bei den Völkern des arischen Stammes: eine anthropologisch-historische Skizze als Beitrag zur Lösung der Frauenfrage, Munich: T. Ackermann, 1886.
- 32.
Andrés Ortiz-Osés, La Diosa Madre: Interpretación desde la mitología vasca, Madrid: Trotta, 1996.
- 33.
José Miguel de Barandiarán et al., Cultura vasca, (Donostia: Editorial Erein, 1977), 18–19. “From the available data on the beliefs and rites that remain from that time, we have become convinced that, at that time, the conception of the world and of man was dominated by a kind of animism (…) due to indigenous myths which had a long-standing tradition and different historical factors such as the contacts which, over millennia, the Basque people had held with different peripheral Indo-European groups (…).”
- 34.
John D. Bengtson, “The Basque language: history and origin”, International Journal of Modern Anthropology 4 (2011).
- 35.
Estrabón Libro III, capítulo 4, Spanish trans. M. J. Meana and F. Piñero, Madrid: Gredos, 1998.
- 36.
The term Fuero, plural Fueros in Spanish, refers to a charter or body of laws granted by the King to a certain city, area, or region, although at times it could also refer to specific groups of individuals; these local laws, which usually included a number of privileges or exemptions, were a key factor for the reconquest process, because it encouraged the repopulation of areas which had been reconquered from the Muslim sovereigns. With the context of feudalism in Spain, “fueros” could also be granted by the nobility to fiefs in which they exercised sovereign functions. Their study is of particular interest for our subject because they reveal an overlap from different legal traditions.
- 37.
Caro Baroja, Los Pueblos de España, 34.
- 38.
Hernandez et al., “Human maternal heritage in Andalusia”, 2: “The first studies on matrilineal diversity in Iberian populations were performed in northern Spain, and, more specifically in the Basque Country. Mitochondrial DNA variation in Basques has consistently shown low diversity levels and peak frequencies of haplogroup H, the most frequently detected clade in Europe. These findings have allowed the Basque mitochondrial profile to be distinguished from other European populations.”
- 39.
Miguel Cruz Hernández, El Islam de al-Andalus. Historia y estructura de su realidad social (Madrid: M.A.E. Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional, 1992), 73.
- 40.
María Ángeles Gallego, “Approaches to the study of Muslim and Jewish women in medieval Iberian Peninsula: The poetess Qasmuna Bat Isma’il”, MEAH, sección Hebreo 48 (1999), 63–75.
- 41.
Yom Tov Assis, “Sexual Behaviour in Mediaeval Hispano-Jewish Society,” in Ada Rapoport-Albert and Steven J. Zipperstein (eds.), Jewish History: Essays in Honour of Chimen Abramsky (London: Peter Halban, 1988), 25–59.
- 42.
Sylvie-Anne Golberg, “Blood ties/social ties. Matrilineality, converts and Apostates from late antiquity to the Middle Ages”, Clio 44:2 (2016), 171–200.
- 43.
Fernando Díaz Esteban, La herencia de Al-Andalus en el mundo antiguo, in La Herencia de Al-Andalus, Fátima Roldán (ed.) (Sevilla: Fundación El Monte, 2007), 33: “In contact with the Arab-Islamic world, the Jews recovered the interest in philosophy, science, history and secular literature which they had already had in Hellenistic times and in the first centuries of Christianity, when they sometimes wrote in Hebrew, sometimes in Aramaic, and sometimes in Greek (…)”.
- 44.
Charles Burnett, “The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century”, Science in Context 14:1/2 (2001), 249–88.
- 45.
Jerrilynn D. Dodds, The arts of intimacy: Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the Making of Castilian Culture (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009); Jane S. Garber, “Ornament of the World”, Humanities magazine (online), 2019: “Most of Sephardic Jewry’s daring innovations in the manipulation of the Hebrew language in versification or Sephardic interest in philosophy and science flourished while the Caliphate of Córdoba briefly blossomed (929–1031). With the breakup of the Caliphate of Córdoba in the eleventh century, Andalusia was divided into more than two dozen statelets or mini-kingdoms (the Taifa kingdoms 1031–1089), each boasting its own court of poets and scientists and a patronage system that included the talents of the minority populations. Jewish courtiers flourished in Saragossa, Granada, Mérida and elsewhere, sponsoring their own secular salons that mirrored the dominant hybrid culture. Jews branched into astronomy, cartography, medicine and mathematics, philosophy and Hebrew and Arabic philology, and poetry.”
- 46.
Cruz Hernández, El Islam de al-Andalus, 171: “[S]ocial relations, especially in the urban environment, led them (the Mozarabs) quickly to the knowledge of the Arabic language and subsequent bilingualism; but apparently, the urban nuclei were deeply Arabized, since Álvaro de Córdoba in the Indiculus luminosus complains of the abandonment of Latin and classical humanities, reproaching his co-religionists for preferring the Arabic language and humanities and for following their customs and fashions.”
- 47.
Sylvie-Anne Golberg, “Blood ties/social ties. Matrilineality, converts and Apostates from late antiquity to the Middle Ages”, Clio 44:2 (2016), 167.
- 48.
William Davidson, The William Davidson Talmud, (Jerusalem: Koren Publishers, digital edition available at www.sefaria.com), Peshachim 49b.
- 49.
Marcelino Menéndez Pelayo, Historia de los heterodoxos españoles, Madrid: La Editorial Católica, 1978.
- 50.
Dolores Collado, Ignacio Ortuño Ortín, and Andrés Romeu, “Surnames and social status in Spain,” Investigaciones económicas 32:3 (2008), 259–87.
- 51.
For a general overview of this issue, Pierre Guichard, Al-Andalus: Estructura antropológica de una sociedad islámica en occidente, Granada: Universidad de Granada, 1998, and Jacinto Bosch-Vilá, “Establecimiento de grupos humanos norteafricanos en la Península Ibérica” Atti del 1er Congresso Internazionale di Studi Norte-Africani, Cagliari, 1965, 147–65.
- 52.
Cruz Hernández, El Islam de Al-Andalus, 65.
- 53.
Pierre Guichard, “Les Arabes ont bien envahi l’Espagne: les structures sociales de l’Espagne musulmane”, Annales, Economies, Sociétés, Civilisations, 29:6 (1974), 1483–513.
- 54.
Evariste Lévi-Provençal, “España Musulmana hasta la caída del Califato de Córdoba, 701–1031 de J.C. (Madrid: Espasa Calpe, S.A., 1982), 117.
- 55.
José Luis Gómez Martínez, “Américo Castro y Sánchez Albornoz: dos posiciones ante el orden de los españoles,” La Nueva Revista de Filología Hispánica 11:2 (1972), 300–19. The embittered discussion between these two major Spanish historians of the twentieth century divided the field of Islamic studies in Spain into at least two well-differentiated groups: those who sympathised with the views of Americo Castro and those who sided with Claudio Sánchez Albornoz. Castro’s was that: “Islam forced [Spain] to reflect, and opened up a new perspective on the traditional way of life and the social commitments of the inhabitants of the north,” (Américo Castro, España en su historia: cristianos, moros y judíos, Buenos Aires: Losada, 1948). Sánchez Albornoz, on the other hand, believed that “Islam twisted the fate of Spain. (…) Had Spain followed the same course as France, Germany and England, and based on what, despite Islam, we have done through the centuries, perhaps we would even have been able to take the lead.” (Claudio Sánchez Albornoz, “España y el Islam,” Revista de Occidente 70 (1929), 11–20.)
- 56.
S. P. Scott, S. P. (ed. and trans.), The Visigothic Code, (Littleton: F.B. Rothman, 1982), 125–6.
- 57.
Tacitus. Agricola, “Germania, and Dialogues on Orators”, ed. and trans. Herbert W. Benario (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 72 and ff.
- 58.
José López Ortiz “Algunos capítulos del formulario notarial de Abensalmún de Granada,” AHDE 4 (1927), 319–76.
- 59.
Simeon L. Guterman, The Principle of the Personality of Law in the Early Middle Ages: A Chapter in the Evolution of Western Legal Institutions and Ideas, Law Review University of Miami 21:2 (1966), 263–4. “The establishment of Germanic kingdoms in Italy, Gaul, Spain, and North Africa reduced the law of the Roman population to the status of a tolerated personal legislation. Among the Franks, Burgundians, Visigoths, and even Ostrogoths a dualistic system was established in which Romans retained the privilege of their own private law, but in which the Germanic law undoubtedly enjoyed territorial validity in disputes between Germans and Romans.”
- 60.
Amalia Zomeño Rodriguez, “The Islamic marriage contract in al-Andalus (10th–16th centuries)” in Asifa Quraishi and Frank E. Vogel (eds.) The Islamic marriage contract: case studies in Islamic family law, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 136–55.
- 61.
Vincent Lagardère, Histoire et société en Occident musulman au Moyen Âge: Analyse du Mi’yar d’al-Wansarisi, Madrid: Collection de la Casa de Velázquez, 1995.
- 62.
Ibn Khaldun, Histoire des Berbères.
- 63.
Pedro Chalmeta, Invasión e Islamización: la sumisión de Hispania y la formación de al-Andalus, Madrid: Editorial Mapfre, 1994.
- 64.
Ibn Battuta, The travels of Ibn Battuta in Asia and Africa, trans. H.A.R. Gibb, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962.
- 65.
Pierre Guichard, “Les Arabes ont bien envahi l’Espagne: les structures sociales de l’Espagne musulmane” op. cit., p. 1486.
- 66.
Ibn ʿAbd al-Hakam, Conquête de l’Afrique du Nord et de l’Espagne, [Futūh Ifriqīya wa al-Andalus], ed. and French trans. A. Gateau (Alger: Éditions Carbonel 1948), 77–8. For a general overview of the influence of the Berber tribes in al-Andalus, see Eduardo Manzano, “Bereberes de Al-Andalus: Los factores de una evolución histórica”, Al-qantara: Revista de estudios árabes 11:2 (1990), 397–428.
- 67.
Christine Mazzoli-Guintard and Almudena Ariza Armada, Gouverner en terre d’Islam X–XV siècle (Chevaigné: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2014), 71.
- 68.
Fedérico Olóriz Aguilera, Diario de la expedición antropológica a la Alpujarra en 1894, ed. Javier Piñar Samos, Granada: Colección Sierra Nevada y la Alpujarra, 1995.
- 69.
Gerard Brenan, South from Granada, London: Penguin Books, 2008.
- 70.
José Juán Jiménez González, “Las fuentes etnohistóricas canarias. Crónicas, historias, memorias y relatos”, Anuario de Estudios Atlánticos 44 (1999), 199–263.
- 71.
Antonio Tejera, La religión de los guanches. Ritos, mitos y leyendas, Santa Cruz de Tenerife: Asociación Cultural de las Islas Canarias, 1995; Antonio Tejera and Antonio Chausa, “Les nouvelles inscriptions indigènes et les relations entre l’Afrique et les îles Canaries”, Bulletin Archéologique du C.T.H.S. 25 (1999), 69–74.
- 72.
Bruno Franco Moreno, “Distribución y asentamientos de tribus bereberes (Imazighen) en el territorio emeritense en época emiral (S. VIII–X)”, Arqueología Y Territorio Medieval 12:1 (2005), 39–50.
- 73.
José Beneroso Santos, “Acerca del establecimiento de los grupos bereberes en la zona de Tarifa. Pautas, dinámicas y posibles asentamientos,” Al Qantir 16 (2014), 150–151.
- 74.
Soha Abboud-Haggar, Andalusian Precedents for the Taxation of Mudejar Communities, En la España Medieval, 2008, vol. 31, pp. 475–512.
- 75.
Chalmeta, Invasión e Islamización, 26.
- 76.
Claudio Sánchez Albornoz, La España Musulmana según los autores islamitas y cristianos medievales (Madrid: España Calpe, 1978), 82–3.
- 77.
Abū Bakr Ibn ʿUmar Ibn al-Qūṭiyya al-Qurtubī, Taʾrīkh Iftitāh al-Andalūs, ed. and Spanish trans. Julián Ribera, Madrid, 1926.
- 78.
Delfina Serrano Ruano, “Paternity and filiation according to the jurists of al-Andalus: legal doctrines on transgression of the Islamic social order,” Imago temporis: medium Aevum 7 (2013), 59–75.
- 79.
Adeel Mohammadi, “The Ambiguity of Maternal Filiation (nasab) in Early and Medieval Islam,” The Graduate Journal of Harvard Divinity School, 2019.
- 80.
Ibn Hazm, Jamharat ansāb al-ʿarab, ed. E. Lévi_Provençal, Cairo: Al Maaref Publishers, 1948.
- 81.
Claudio Sánchez Albornoz, Ben Ammar de Sevilla. Una tragedia en la España de las Taifas, Madrid: Espasa Calpe, 1972.
- 82.
Ingrid Bergström, “Disguised symbolism in Madonna Pictures and Still Life,” The Burlington Magazine 631 (1995), 303–8: “The criteria for carrying out an interpretation requires the examination of a wide repertoire of comparative material consisting of works of art, religious ideas, literature and other aspects of social relations. The question is also more complex because the same object can be interpreted in different ways.”
- 83.
Manuel Lorente, “Matrifocalidad, Semana Santa y Cante Jondo en Jérez de la Frontera”, in Música Oral del Sur—Papeles del Festival de música española de Cádiz, Granada: Consejería de Cultura y Deporte, 2012.
- 84.
Jan Bregger and David D. Gilmore, “The matrifocal family in Iberia: Spain and Portugal compared,” Ethnology 36:1 (1997), 13–30.
- 85.
Luce Lope-Baralt, Huellas del Islam en la literatura española: De Juan Ruiz a Juan Goytisolo, (Madrid: Libros Hiperión, 1989), 26.
- 86.
Amy G. Remensnyder, La Conquistadora: The Virgin Mary at War and Peace in the Old and New Worlds, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
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Kavanagh, A.G. (2024). The Origins of Andalusian Muslim Matrilineal Systems. In: Panakkal, A., Arif, N.M. (eds) Matrilineal, Matriarchal, and Matrifocal Islam. Palgrave Series in Islamic Theology, Law, and History. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51749-5_10
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