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Environmental Liabilities and Insurance Law in the United Kingdom

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Managing Environmental Risks through Insurance

Part of the book series: AIDA Europe Research Series on Insurance Law and Regulation ((ERSILR,volume 9))

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Abstract

Individuals in the United Kingdom (UK) who suffer bodily injury and property damage from exposure to pollutants or other environmental damage have long been able to make claims against persons that caused the damage, with common law torts in England, Wales and Northern Ireland differing from civil law torts in Scotland.

Environmental legislation, especially from the early 1990s, substantially increased the liabilities with the introduction of more extensive environmental permitting and liability legislation. Most environmental legislation in this modern era originated in the European Union (EU). As a result, over 95% of environmental law in the UK is EU law or, as it has been called since the UK left the EU on 31 January 2020, ‘retained EU law’.

Since 1998, environmental law in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland has increasingly diverged in each region as a result of devolution. The environmental is a devolved matter, which means that each government may enact its own environmental legislation. Whereas the extent of the differences was mitigated when the UK was a Member State of the EU, the differences have steadily increased since 31 January 2020.

The increase in environmental liabilities in the modern era of environmental law led insurers in the UK to include a pollution exclusion in public liability policies. At about the same time, some insurers—mostly affiliates of US insurers—began introducing environmental insurance policies for risks across the UK. Insurers subsequently also began offering extensions to public liability policies to provide cover for remediating off-site pollution from sudden and accidental incidents on an insured’s site.

This chapter will examine tort and statutory environmental liabilities in the UK and insurance that provides cover for them.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    One notable exception is insurance for vehicles. In Vnuk v Zavarovalnica Triglav d.d., Case C-162/13 ECLI:EU:C:2014:2146, https://curia.europa.eu/juris/liste.jsf?num=C-162/13, the Court of Justice of the European Union ruled that the Motor Insurance Directive (2009/103/EC) OJ [2009] L263/11; https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32009L0103 (accessed on 10.05.2023) required mandatory motor insurance not only for travel on roads and public places but also in respect of a farm worker who was injured when a reversing tractor with a trailer knocked him off a ladder in a private farmyard. The UK Parliament subsequently removed application of the Directive to vehicles ‘other than motor vehicles’ that were ‘otherwise than on a road or other public place’ by the Motor Vehicles (Compulsory Insurance) Act 2022; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2022/25/enacted (accessed on 10.05.2023). The Act applies to England, Wales and Scotland; it does not apply to Northern Ireland.

  2. 2.

    Coventry v Lawrence [2014] UKSC 13 [74].

  3. 3.

    Ibid. [56].

  4. 4.

    Leakey v National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty [1980] 1 QB 485, 526.

  5. 5.

    Lambert v Barratt Homes Ltd [2010 EWCA Civ 681 [15]–[19]; see also House Maker (Padgate) Ltd v Network Rail Infrastructure [2022] EWHC 1482 (TCC) (rail operator had a measured duty of care to a developer on a site next to a railway station owned and operated by the rail operator to rectify flooding caused to the developer’s site by a collapsed drain on the rail operator’s land).

  6. 6.

    Barr v Biffa Waste Services Ltd [2012] EWCA Civ 312 [46].

  7. 7.

    Hunter v Canary Wharf [1997] AC 655, 692.

  8. 8.

    Ibid. [696], [707], [724].

  9. 9.

    Sedleigh-Denfield v O’Callaghan [1940] AC 880, 911–913.

  10. 10.

    Jalla v Shell International Trading and Shipping Company [2023] UKSC 16.

  11. 11.

    Coventry v Lawrence [2014] UKSC 13 [132], [161].

  12. 12.

    Corby Group Litigation v Corby Borough Council [2008] EWCA Civ 463 [29]–[33].

  13. 13.

    Corby Group Litigation v Corby Borough Council [2009] EWHC 1944, [892].

  14. 14.

    Rylands v Fletcher (1868) LR 3 HL 330.

  15. 15.

    Cambridge Water Company v Eastern Counties Leather [1994] 2 AC 264, 309.

  16. 16.

    The reduction arose from transposition of Council Directive (80/778/EEC) relating to the quality of water intended for human consumption [1980] OJ L229/11; https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A31980L0778 (repealed) (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  17. 17.

    Cambridge Water Company v Eastern Counties Leather [1994] 2 AC 264, 306–307.

  18. 18.

    Ibid., 305.

  19. 19.

    Transco Plc v Stockport Metropolitan Borough Council [2003] UKHL 61 [39]–[46], [66].

  20. 20.

    Fairchild v Glenhaven Funeral Services Ltd [2002] UKHL 22 [2].

  21. 21.

    Barker v Corus (UK) Plc [2006] UKHL 20 [113].

  22. 22.

    Compensation Act 2006, s 3; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2006/29/contents (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  23. 23.

    Sienkiewicz (Administratrix of the Estate of Enid Costello Deceased) v Greif (UK) Limited [2011] UKSC 10 [107]–[112].

  24. 24.

    Bocardo SA v Star Energy UK Onshore Ltd [2010] UKSC 35 [90]–[92].

  25. 25.

    Infrastructure Act 2014, s 32; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2015/7/contents/enacted (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  26. 26.

    Environmental Protection Act 1990, s 79(1B); https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1990/43/contents (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  27. 27.

    Ibid., s 79(1).

  28. 28.

    Ibid., s 80(1).

  29. 29.

    Ibid., s 80(2)(a).

  30. 30.

    Ibid., s 80(2)(c).

  31. 31.

    Ibid., s 80(7).

  32. 32.

    Ibid., s 79(9).

  33. 33.

    Ibid., s 80(3).

  34. 34.

    Ibid., s 80(4).

  35. 35.

    Scotland Land 1998; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1998/46/contents (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  36. 36.

    Government of Wales Act 1998; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1998/38/contents (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  37. 37.

    Government of Wales Act 2006; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2006/32/contents (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  38. 38.

    Northern Ireland Act 1998; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1998/47/contents (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  39. 39.

    Scotland Act 2016; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2016/11/contents/enacted (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  40. 40.

    Wales Act 2017; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2017/4/contents/enacted/data.htm (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  41. 41.

    See Wilks (2022); https://www.thenational.wales/news/20088766.explained-devolution-wales-scotland-northern-ireland/ (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  42. 42.

    United Kingdom Internal Market Act 2020; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2020/27/contents/enacted (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  43. 43.

    Environmental Protection (Plastic Straws, Cotton Buds and Stirrers) (England) Regulations 2020/971; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2020/971/contents/made (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  44. 44.

    R (on the application of the Counsel General for Wales) v Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy [2021] EWHC 950 (Admin) (denying the application as premature due to the absence of specific legislation), affirmed, R (on the Application of the Counsel General for Wales) v Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy [2022] EWCA Civ 118 (appeal pending).

  45. 45.

    United Kingdom Internal Market Act 2020 (Exclusions from Market Access Principles: Single-Use Plastics) Regulations 2022/857; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukdsi/2022/9780348236101 (accessed on 10.05.2023); see Environmental Protection (Single-use Plastic Products) (Scotland) Regulations 2021/410; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ssi/2021/410/contents/made The Welsh legislation had not been enacted when this chapter was written (March 2023).

  46. 46.

    European Communities Act 1972 (repealed); https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1972/68/contents (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  47. 47.

    European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2018/16/contents/enacted (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  48. 48.

    European Union (Future Relationship) Act 2020; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2020/29/contents (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  49. 49.

    Trade and Cooperation Agreement between the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community, of the one part, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, of the other part; https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/948119/EU-UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement_24.12.2020.pdf (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  50. 50.

    Directive 2004/35/CE on environmental liability with regard to the prevention and remedying of environmental damage [2004] OJ L143/56 (consolidated version); https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A02004L0035-20190626 (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  51. 51.

    Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2016/1154; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2016/1154/contents/made (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  52. 52.

    Environmental Authorisations (Scotland) Regulations 2018/219; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ssi/2018/219/contents/made.

  53. 53.

    Pollution Prevention and Control (Industrial Emissions) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2013/160; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/nisr/2013/160/contents/made (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  54. 54.

    Directive 2010/75/EU on industrial emissions (integrated pollution prevention and control) [2010] OJ L334/17 (consolidated version); https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A02010L0075-20110106 (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  55. 55.

    Council Directive 1999/31/EC on the landfill of waste [1999] OJ L182/1 (consolidated version); https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A01999L0031-20180704 (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  56. 56.

    Regulatory Enforcement and Sanctions Act 2008, s 50; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2008/13/contents; see, e.g., Environmental Civil Sanctions (England) Order 2010; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukdsi/2010/9780111492512/contents; Environment Agency’s use of civil sanctions; https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/environment-agencys-use-of-civil-sanctions (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  57. 57.

    See Environment Agency, Enforcement undertakings accepted by the Environment Agency: 1 January 2022 to 31 May 2022 (updated 22 June 2022); https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/environment-agencys-use-of-civil-sanctions/enforcement-undertakings-accepted-by-the-environment-agency-1-january-2022-to-31-may-2022 (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  58. 58.

    See Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, Policy paper: Establishing the Best Available Techniques for the UK (UK BAT) (updated 20 December 2022); www.gov.uk/government/publications/establishing-the-best-available-techniques-for-the-uk-uk-bat/establishing-the-best-available-techniques-for-the-uk-uk-bat (accessed 23 November 2023)

  59. 59.

    Water Resources Act 1991; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1991/57/contents (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  60. 60.

    Anti-Pollution Works Regulations 1999/1006; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1999/1006/contents/made (accessed on 10.05.2023). The relevant regulations for Northern Ireland and Scotland are the Anti-Pollution Works Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2003/7; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/nisr/2003/7/contents/made (accessed on 10.05.2023); Water Environment (Controlled Activities) (Scotland) Regulations 2011/209; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ssi/2011/209/contents/made (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  61. 61.

    Water Resources Act 1991, s 161A(1); https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1991/57/contents (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  62. 62.

    Ibid., s 104.

  63. 63.

    Ibid., Part VII.

  64. 64.

    Hydromorphological quality elements are elements that affect the hydrological and geomorphological (water flow, width and depth of the water channel, conditions of riverbeds and banks, etc.) of rivers, lakes and other surface water bodies. They include physical characteristics of water bodies that interact with and affect the biological and chemical quality of water.

  65. 65.

    Environmental Protection Act 1990, s 59; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1990/43/contents (accessed on 10.05.2023). There are differing versions of Section 59 for England and Wales (and Scotland). Waste has been unlawfully deposited if the deposit is in breach of Section 33(1) of the Environmental Protection Act 1990, or regulation 12 of the Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2016/1154; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2016/1154/contents/made (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  66. 66.

    Environmental Protection Act 1990, s 59ZB; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1990/43/contents (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  67. 67.

    Environment Act 1995, s 109A; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1995/25/contents (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  68. 68.

    Ibid., s 109C-109F.

  69. 69.

    Ibid., s 109K.

  70. 70.

    Ibid., s 109L.

  71. 71.

    Environmental Damage (Prevention and Remediation) (England) Regulations 2015/810; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2015/810/regulation/18 (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  72. 72.

    Environmental Damage (Prevention and Remediation) (Wales) Regulations 2009/995; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/wsi/2009/995/contents (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  73. 73.

    Environmental Liability (Scotland) Regulations 2009/266; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ssi/2009/266/contents/made (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  74. 74.

    Environmental Liability (Prevention and Remediation) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2009/252; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/nisr/2009/252/contents/made (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  75. 75.

    The regulations are implemented in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, respectively, by the Environment Agency, Natural England, local authorities and the Marine Management Organisation in England; SEPA, NatureScot and Marine Scotland; NRW, local authorities and the Marine Management Organisation; and the Northern Ireland Environment Agency.

  76. 76.

    ASSIs are the designation for SSSIs in Northern Ireland.

  77. 77.

    Directive 2000/60/EC establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy [2000] OJ L327/1 (consolidated version); https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:02000L0060-20141120 (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  78. 78.

    Directive 2008/56/EC establishing a framework for community action in the field of marine environmental policy [20008] OJ L164/19 (consolidated version); https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A02008L0056-20170607 (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  79. 79.

    Directive 2009/147/EC on the conservation of wild birds [2010] OJ L20/7 (codified version); https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32009L0147 (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  80. 80.

    Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora [1992] OJ L206/7 (consolidated version); https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:01992L0043-20130701 (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  81. 81.

    ELD Art. 2(1)(c).

  82. 82.

    Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, The Environmental Damage (Prevention and Remediation) Regulations 2009; Guidance for England and Wales (2nd Update, November 2009), 70; https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/221095/pb13895-indepth-guide-regs09.pdf (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  83. 83.

    ELD Art. 2(1)(b).

  84. 84.

    Ibid., Art. 2(1)(a).

  85. 85.

    EDR sched 1, para 4.

  86. 86.

    Ibid., sched 3, para 9.

  87. 87.

    Ibid., sched 3, para 4.

  88. 88.

    Ibid., sched 3, para 5.

  89. 89.

    Ibid., reg 13(1).

  90. 90.

    Ibid., reg 14(1).

  91. 91.

    Ibid., reg 8.

  92. 92.

    Ibid., reg 8(1).

  93. 93.

    Ibid., reg 19.

  94. 94.

    Ibid., reg 29.

  95. 95.

    R (on the application of Seiont, Gwyrfai and Llyfni Anglers’ Society) v Natural Resources Wales [2015] EWHC 3578 (Admin).

  96. 96.

    R (Seiont, Gwyrfai and Llyfni Anglers’ Society) v Natural Resources Wales [2016] EWCA Civ 797.

  97. 97.

    Directive 2009/147/EC on the conservation of wild birds [2010] OJ L20/7 (codified version); https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32009L0147 (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  98. 98.

    Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora [1992] OJ L206/7; https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:01992L0043-20130701 (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  99. 99.

    Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, part II; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1981/69 (accessed on 10.05.2023) (England and Wales); Nature Conservation (Scotland) Act 2004 part 2; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/asp/2004/6/contents (accessed on 10.05.2023); Environment (Northern Ireland) Order 2002/3153, part IV; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/nisi/2002/3153/contents (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  100. 100.

    Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, s 31.

  101. 101.

    Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulations 2017/1012, reg 31; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2017/1012/contents/made (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  102. 102.

    Ibid., reg 28.

  103. 103.

    Environmental Protection Act 1990, Part IIA Contaminated Land (ss 78A – 78YC); https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1990/43/contents (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  104. 104.

    The regulations for England, Scotland and Wales are the Contaminated Land (England) Regulations 2006/1380; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2006/1380/contents/made (accessed on 10.05.2023); Contaminated Land (Scotland) Regulations 2005/658; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ssi/2005/658/contents/made (accessed on 10.05.2023); Contaminated Land (Wales) Regulations 2001/2197; https://www.legislation.gov.uk/wsi/2001/2197/contents/made (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  105. 105.

    Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, Environmental Protection Act 1990: Part 2A; Contaminated Land Statutory Guidance (April 2012); https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/contaminated-land-statutory-guidance (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  106. 106.

    Scottish Government, Environmental Protection Act 1990 – Part IIA Contaminated Land: statutory guidance (7 June 2006); https://www.gov.scot/publications/environmental-protection-act-1990-part-iia-contaminated-land-statutory-guidance/ (accessed on 10.05.2023); Welsh Government Guidance Document; Contaminated Land Statutory Guidance – 2012; https://gov.wales/sites/default/files/publications/2019-08/contaminated-land-statutory-guidance-2012.pdf (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  107. 107.

    Environmental Protection Act 1990, s 78A(2).

  108. 108.

    Ibid., s 78A(4).

  109. 109.

    Water Resources Act 1991, s 104.

  110. 110.

    Environmental Protection Act 1990, s 78A(9).

  111. 111.

    Ibid., s 78F.

  112. 112.

    Ibid., s 78L.

  113. 113.

    Circular Facilities (London) Ltd v Sevenoaks District Council [2005] EWHC 865 (Admin).

  114. 114.

    The legislation was subsequently revised so that appeals against a remediation notice are to the Secretary of State instead of a magistrates court as indicated above.

  115. 115.

    National Grid Gas plc) v Environment Agency [2007] UKHL 30.

  116. 116.

    R (on the application of Redland Minerals Ltd) v Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs [2010] EWHC 913 (Admin).

  117. 117.

    Powys County Council v Price and Hardwick [2017] EWCA Civ 1133.

  118. 118.

    Employers Liability Policy Trigger Litigation (Durham v BAI) [2012] UKSC 14 [19].

  119. 119.

    Ibid. (quoting Charter Reinsurance Company Ltd. v Fagan [1997] AC 313, 384 [1996] 2 WLR 726, [1996] 3 All ER 46 (House of Lords)).

  120. 120.

    Investors Compensation Scheme v West Bromwich Building Society [1998] 1 WLR 896, [1998] 1 All ER 98 (House of Lords).

  121. 121.

    Bartoline Ltd v Royal & Sun Alliance Insurance plc [2007] All ER (D) 59 (High Court (Mercantile Court)) [6].

  122. 122.

    Ibid.

  123. 123.

    Ibid. [13].

  124. 124.

    Ibid. [116].

  125. 125.

    Lancashire County Council v Municipal Mutual Insurance Ltd [1997] QB 897, 904 [1996] 3 WLR 493 (Court of Appeal).

  126. 126.

    Bradley v Eagle Star Insurance Company Ltd [1989] 1 AC 957 [1989] 2 WLR 568 (House of Lords); Post Office v Norwich Union Fire Insurance Society Ltd [1967] 2 QB 363, [1967] 2 WLR 709 (Court of Appeal); see Yorkshire Water Services Ltd v Sun Alliance and London Insurance plc (No 1) [1997] 2 Lloyd’s Rep 21 (Court of Appeal).

  127. 127.

    See American Centennial Insurance Company v Insco Ltd [1996] Lloyd’s Rep LR 407 (‘[words] such as “event” and “occurrence” are not easy to define, but … their meanings are very similar’).

  128. 128.

    Bolton Metropolitan Borough Council v Commercial Union and Municipal Mutual Insurance [2006] 1 WLR 1492 (Court of Appeal).

  129. 129.

    Ibid., 1497.

  130. 130.

    Ibid., 1502.

  131. 131.

    Durham v BAI (Run Off) Ltd [2012] UKSC 14 [18].

  132. 132.

    Ibid. [19].

  133. 133.

    Ibid. [69]–[75].

  134. 134.

    Ibid. [27].

  135. 135.

    Equitas Insurance Limited v Municipal Mutual Insurance Limited [2019] EWCA Civ 718 [146].

  136. 136.

    Ibid. [162].

  137. 137.

    Member States of the EU and states in the European Economic Area (EEA) are authorised to carry on insurance business, including offering and placing policies, in all Member States as well as the State in which they are authorised to carry on insurance business. They do this by establishing a branch or agents in the State (called right of establishment) or providing cross-border services across the EEA (freedom of services).

  138. 138.

    Council Directive 1999/31/EC on the landfill of waste [1999] OJ L182/1; https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:31999L0031 (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  139. 139.

    Directive 2016/21/EC on the management of waste from extractive industries [2016] OJ L102/15; https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:02006L0021-20090807 (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  140. 140.

    Directive (2009/31/EC) on the geological storage of carbon dioxide [2009] OJ L140/114; https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32009L0031 (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  141. 141.

    Regulation (EC) No 1013/2006 on shipments of waste [2006] OJ L190/1 (consolidated version); https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1454069470717&uri=CELEX:02006R1013-20180101 (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  142. 142.

    Directive 2012/19/EU on waste electrical and electronic equipment [2012] OJ L197/38; https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32012L0019 (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  143. 143.

    Directive 2011/65/EU on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment (recast) [2011] OJ L174/88 (consolidated version); https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:02011L0065-20200301 (accessed on 10.05.2023).

  144. 144.

    See generally Mackie and Combe (2019), p. 83.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Cardiff University School of Law and Politics, Cardiff, Wales, UK

    Valerie Fogleman

  2. Stevens & Bolton LLP, Guildford, England, UK

    Valerie Fogleman

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  1. Valerie Fogleman
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Correspondence to Valerie Fogleman .

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  1. College of Law, Kozminski University, Warsaw, Poland

    Katarzyna Malinowska

  2. University of Gdansk, Gdańsk, Poland

    Dorota Maśniak

Appendices

Cases

  • American Centennial Insurance Company v Insco Ltd [1996] Lloyd’s Rep LR 407

  • Barker v Corus (UK) Plc [2006] UKHL 20

  • Barr v Biffa Waste Services Ltd [2012] EWCA Civ 312

  • Bartoline Ltd v Royal & Sun Alliance Insurance plc [2007] All ER (D) 59 (High Court (Mercantile Court))

  • Bocardo SA v Star Energy UK Onshore Ltd [2010] UKSC 35

  • Bolton Metropolitan Borough Council v Commercial Union and Municipal Mutual Insurance [2006] 1 WLR 1492 (Court of Appeal)

  • Bradley v Eagle Star Insurance Company Ltd [1989] 1 AC 957 [1989] 2 WLR 568 (House of Lords)

  • Circular Facilities (London) Ltd v Sevenoaks District Council [2005] EWHC 865 (Admin)

  • Cambridge Water Company v Eastern Counties Leather [1994] 2 AC 264

  • Charter Reinsurance Company Ltd. v Fagan [1997] AC 313, 384 [1996] 2 WLR 726, [1996] 3 All ER 46 (House of Lords)

  • Corby Group Litigation v Corby Borough Council [2008] EWCA Civ 463

  • Corby Group Litigation v Corby Borough Council [2009] EWHC 1944

  • Coventry v Lawrence [2014] UKSC 13

  • Durham v BAI (Run Off) Ltd [2012] UKSC 14

  • Employers Liability Policy Trigger Litigation (Durham v BAI) [2012] UKSC 14

  • Equitas Insurance Limited v Municipal Mutual Insurance Limited [2019] EWCA Civ 718

  • Fairchild v Glenhaven Funeral Services Ltd [2002] UKHL 22

  • Lambert v Barratt Homes Ltd [2010 EWCA Civ 681

  • Lancashire County Council v Municipal Mutual Insurance Ltd [1997] QB 897 [1996] 3 WLR 493 (Court of Appeal)

  • Leakey v National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty [1980] 1 QB 485

  • House Maker (Padgate) Ltd v Network Rail Infrastructure [2022] EWHC 1482 (TCC)

  • Hunter v Canary Wharf [1997] AC 655

  • Investors Compensation Scheme v West Bromwich Building Society [1998] 1 WLR 896, [1998] 1 All ER 98 (House of Lords)

  • Jalla v Shell International Trading and Shipping Company [2021] EWCA Civ 63

  • National Grid Gas plc) v Environment Agency [2007] UKHL 30

  • Post Office v Norwich Union Fire Insurance Society Ltd [1967] 2 QB 363, [1967] 2 WLR 709 (Court of Appeal)

  • Powys County Council v Price and Hardwick [2017] EWCA Civ 1133

  • R (on the application of Redland Minerals Ltd) v Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs [2010] EWHC 913 (Admin)

  • R (on the application of the Counsel General for Wales) v Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy [2021] EWHC 950 (Admin), affirmed, R (on the Application of the Counsel General for Wales) v Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy [2022] EWCA Civ 118

  • R (on the application of Seiont, Gwyrfai and Llyfni Anglers’ Society) v Natural Resources Wales [2015] EWHC 3578 (Admin)

  • R (Seiont, Gwyrfai and Llyfni Anglers’ Society) v Natural Resources Wales [2016] EWCA Civ 797

  • Rylands v Fletcher (1868) LR 3 HL 330

  • Sedleigh-Denfield v O’Callaghan [1940] AC 880

  • Sienkiewicz (Administratrix of the Estate of Enid Costello Deceased) v Greif (UK) Limited [2011] UKSC 10

  • Transco Plc v Stockport Metropolitan Borough Council [2003] UKHL 61

  • Vnuk v Zavarovalnica Triglav d.d., Case C-162/13 ECLI:EU:C:2014:2146, https://curia.europa.eu/juris/liste.jsf?num=C-162/13 (accessed on 10.05.2023)

  • Yorkshire Water Services Ltd v Sun Alliance and London Insurance plc (No 1) [1997] 2 Lloyd’s Rep 21 (Court of Appeal)

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Fogleman, V. (2024). Environmental Liabilities and Insurance Law in the United Kingdom. In: Malinowska, K., Maśniak, D. (eds) Managing Environmental Risks through Insurance. AIDA Europe Research Series on Insurance Law and Regulation, vol 9. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-47602-0_4

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