Legal and Ethical Aspects of Autonomous Vehicles

Noussia, Kyriaki; Gocmen, Zuhal; Glynou, Maria

doi:10.1007/978-3-031-32356-0_10

Kyriaki Noussia³,
Zuhal Gocmen⁴ &
Maria Glynou^5,6

256 Accesses

Abstract

With the acceleration of the pace with which artificial intelligence (AI) penetrates our lives, we will, sooner rather than later, move into a world of automated transportation system which will dominate our everyday life and movements, and which has already been—to a certain extent—introduced in the market. Fully autonomous vehicles (AVs) are expected to be widely used within the next decade or earlier, however, technological, and regulatory obstacles may delay their massive use and public deployment. This chapter discusses the main legal and ethical issues deriving from the use of AVs to showcase the regulators’ significant role in providing solutions to such issues. It also makes some propositions for the way forward in relation to issues concerning necessity situations, liability issues and insurance implications, criminal and contractual liability and lastly data implications, before drawing overall conclusions.

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Notes

1.
Lohmann (2016), p. 335.
2.
Lohmann (2016), p. 335.
3.
Bagloee et al. (2016), p. 288; Hancock et al. (2019), p. 7684; Landini and Noussia (2022), pp. 131–172; Noussia (2020), p. 253; Goodall (2014); Matthaei et al. (2015).
4.
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7.
On-Road Automated Driving Committee (2018) Taxonomy and definitions for terms related to driving automation systems for on-road motor vehicles. SAE International, Standard J3016. https://www.sae.org/standards/content/j3016_201806/. Accessed on 1 August 2022. See in general, Automated Driving Systems, A Vision for Safety (2017).
8.
Chinen (2019), pp. 35–36.
9.
See Lieber and Puente (2016), accessed on 1 August 2022; Pakusch et al. (2021), pp. 1–49.
10.
See Morrow et al. (2014); Crayton and Meier (2017), pp. 245–252; Divino (2020), pp. 245–252.
11.
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12.
Lohmann (2016), p. 336.
13.
Harper et al. (2016), pp. 3, 7.
14.
Coca-Vila (2017), p. 60.
15.
Mueller et al. (2020), p. 313.
16.
Coca-Vila (2017), p. 60.
17.
Uzair and Hosain (2020), p. 114.
18.
Schellekens (2015), p. 511.
19.
Ibid., p. 510.
20.
Rylands v. Fletcher, [1868] 3 LR HL 330 (Eng.); Rosenberg (2017), p. 218.
21.
Gasser et al. (2016), p. 523; Pammer et al. (2021), p. 257.
22.
Bonnefon et al. (2016), p. 1573.
23.
Gasser et al. (2016), p. 527.
24.
Coca-Vila (2017), p. 60; Contissa et al. (2017), p. 366.
25.
Jeffcott and Rose (2017), p. 22.
26.
Coca-Vila (2017), p. 60.
27.
Coca-Vila (2017), p. 60.
28.
See Bonnefon et al. (2016), p. 1581; Bigman and Gray (2020), p. 81.
29.
Contissa (2017), p. 368.
30.
Contissa (2017), p. 368.
31.
Contissa (2017), p. 366.
32.
Contissa (2017), p. 366.
33.
Contissa (2017), p. 366.
34.
See Kochupillai et al. (2020), pp. 285–299.
35.
Contissa (2017).
36.
Contissa (2017), p. 370.
37.
Bonnefon et al. (2015) Autonomous vehicles need experimental ethics: are we ready for utilitarian cars?. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/13d4/56d4c53d7b03b90ba59845a8f61b23b9f6e8.pdf. Accessed on 1 August 2022.
38.
Jeffcott and Rose (2017), p. 23.
39.
Jeffcott and Rose (2017), p. 23.
40.
Jeffcott and Rose (2017), p. 23.
41.
Jeffcott and Rose (2017), p. 23.
42.
Noussia (2020), p. 254.
43.
Bonnefon et al. (2016), pp. 1573–1576.
44.
Contissa (2017), p. 366.
45.
Contissa (2017), p. 366.
46.
Jeffcott and Rose (2017), p. 22.
47.
Noussia (2020), pp. 255–260.
48.
See German Road Traffic Act (Straßenverkehrsgesetz, StVG) and Survey conducted by the Centre for Connected & Autonomous Vehicles concerning possible amendments to the British Highway Code (2021).
49.
Madden (2005), p. 271.
50.
Goldstein (2016), p. 242.
51.
Lohmann (2016), p. 336.
52.
Lohmann (2016), p. 336.
53.
See, for example Swiss Law and English Law.
54.
Nettleship v Weston [1971] 2 QB 691.
55.
Roberts v Ramsbottom [1980] 1 WLR 823; Broome v Perkins [1987] RTR 321.
56.
Mansfield v Weetabix Ltd [1998] 1 WLR 1263.
57.
Lohmann (2016), p. 336.
58.
Lohmann and Rusch (2015), p. 352. See in general, Channon (2019), Oliphant (2019).
59.
Lohmann (2016), p. 336.
60.
Lohmann (2016), p. 336.
61.
Lohmann (2016), p. 338.
62.
Lohmann (2016), p. 338.
63.
Marchant and Lindor (2012), it has been argued that ‘liability has the potential to present significant deterrent to the development of autonomous vehicles’ (p. 1322); Marchant and Bazzi (2020), p. 118; U.S. Chamber Institute for Legal Reform (2018) Torts of the Future: Autonomous Vehicles (Special Edition), A Look at Emerging Trends in Liability and Regulation. https://instituteforlegalreform.com/research/torts-of-the-future-autonomous-vehicles/, accessed on 1 August 2022, p. 5; see Kim (2017), pp. 312, 317; Montagnani and Cavallo (2021), p. 212; Viscusi and Moore (1991), pp. 105–150, 163; Huber and Litan (1991), p. 729; Parchomovsky and Stein (2008), pp. 286, 288.
64.
Anderson et al. (2016), p. 153; Gursten (2013) Driverless Cars: Who’s Liable in an Accident?. https://www.michiganautolaw.com/blog/2013/05/07/driverless-cars-whos-liable/. Accessed on 1 August 2022. See also Patsakis & Solanas (2013); Scharring et al. (2017).
65.
Gurney (2013), pp. 258, 259, 267, 268.
66.
Ibid., p. 269, 271; Marchant and Lindor (2012), p. 1336.
67.
Keeton (1961), p. 133; see Pokrajac v. Wade Motors, Inc., 266 Wis. 398, 63 N. W. 2d 720 (1954); Moss v. Fortune, 340 S. W. 2d 902 (Tenn. 1960); Tyler v. Dowell, Inc., 274 F. 2d 890, 895 (10th Cir. 1960).
68.
according to which product liability tort claims are precluded when the claimed damages pertain to financial loss and not bodily injury or damage of property other than the product itself. The rationale is that, whereas a consumer should not be charge with the risk of physical injury, he can be fairly charged with the risk that the product would not match his economic expectations, unless the manufacturer agrees that it would; Geistfeld (2015), p. 399; see Seely v. White Motor Company 403 P.2d 145 (Cal. 1965); East River Steamship Corp v. Transamerica Delavel Inc., 476 U.S. 858, 866 (U.S. 1986); Bugra (2020), pp. 180–181.
69.
Lohmann (2016), p. 336.
70.
Noussia (2020), p. 255.
71.
Goldstein (2016), p. 247.
72.
Goldstein (2016), p. 248.
73.
Goldstein (2016), p. 248.
74.
Goldstein (2016), p. 248.
75.
Lohmann (2016), p. 336.
76.
Osmani (2020), p. 62; Noussia (2020), p. 255.
77.
Osmani (2020), p. 62.
78.
Rachum-Twaig (2020), p. 1144.
79.
Rachum-Twaig (2020), p. 1153.
80.
Osmani (2020), p. 63.
81.
See Channon et al. (2019); Marson et al. (2020), pp. 395–416.
82.
See also Centre for Connected & Autonomous Vehicles (2017) Pathway to Driverless Cars: Consultation on Proposals to Support Advanced Driver Assistance Systems and Automated Vehicles: Government Response. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/536365/driverless-cars-proposals-for-adas-and_avts.pdf. Accessed on 1 August 2022.
83.
Hagemann et al. (2018), p. 98; Hutter (2017), ‘Regulators must have access to accurate information so that they have a clear idea of the risks they are regulating’ (pp. 101–114); Owen (2015).
84.
Hagemann et al. (2018), p. 98.
85.
Osmani (2020), p. 57; Pagallo (2013), p. 51.
86.
Osmani (2020), p. 58; Asaro (2015) Liability Problem for Autonomous Artificial Agents. https://peterasaro.org/writing/Asaro,%20Ethics%20Auto%20Agents,%20AAAI.pdf. Accessed on 1 August 2022.
87.
Osmani (2020), p. 58.
88.
Osmani (2020), p. 58.
89.
Osmani (2020), p. 59; Divino (2020), p. 196.
90.
European Parliament (2017) Civil Law Rules on Robotics. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-8-2017-0051_EN.html#title1. Accessed on 1 August 2022.
91.
Osmani (2020), p. 60.
92.
Osmani (2020), p. 60; Barfield (2018).
93.
Osmani (2020), p. 60.
94.
Osmani (2020), p. 61; Saripan and Putera (2016), p. 827.
95.
Osmani (2020), p. 61; Asaro (2006), p. 10.
96.
Osmani (2020), p. 61.
97.
Osmani (2020), p. 62.
98.
Solaiman (2017).
99.
Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007, s. 1(1).
100.
Noussia (2020), pp. 261–263.
101.
Tian et al. (2020), p. 156.
102.
Jeffcott and Rose (2017), p. 23.
103.
Data Protection Under GDPR (2021).
104.
Article 5, GDPR.
105.
Data Protection Under GDPR (2021).
106.
Storing (2017) What EU legislation says about car data. Legal Memorandum on connected vehicles and data. Federation International Automobile Reg, 1. https://www.fiaregion1.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/20170516-Legal-Memorandum-on-Personal-Data-in-Connected-Vehicles-www.pdf. Accessed on 1 August 2022.
107.
By virtue of the Mutual Exclusion Theory, which has been adopted by several European Automotive Industry Associations, data should be categorised to non-personal and personal data. Information provided by the customer was considered as personal whereas data associated with the vehicle’s technical aspects was classified as non-personal. See VDA (2014), p. 2; ACEA (2015), p. 4; ACEA (2016), p. 2 et seq.; SMMT (2017), p. 21 et seq.
108.
The European Commission (2016) Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, A European Strategy on Cooperative Intelligent Transport Systems, A Milestone towards Cooperative, Connected and Automated Mobility. https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/1_en_act_part1_v5.pdf. Accessed on 1 August 2022.
109.
Storing (2017).
110.
Article 29 Working Party is composed on behalf of representatives from all European data protection authorities, the European Data Protection Supervisor as well as the European Commission and its opinions serve as guidelines in regard to interpretation and implementation of data privacy provisions.
111.
By virtue of Article 4 GDPR, location is classified as personal data.
112.
van den Boom (2021), p. 301.
113.
Article 35 GDPR.
114.
Article 29 Working Party (2018) Guidelines on consent under Regulation 2016/679, WP259 rev.01, 10 April 2018 https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/article29/redirection/document/51030. Accessed on 1 August 2022.
115.
European Data Protection Supervisor (2018) Opinion 5/2018, 31 May 2018. https://edps.europa.eu/sites/edp/files/publication/18-05-31_preliminary_opinion_on_privacy_by_design_en_0.pdf. Accessed on 1 August 2022.
116.
Article 29 Working Party (2018) Guidelines on consent under Regulation 2016/679, WP259 rev.01, 10 April 2018 https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/article29/redirection/document/51030. Accessed on 1 August 2022.
117.
Jasmontaite et al. (2018), p. 182.
118.
Article 25(2) GDPR.
119.
Lohmann (2016), p. 338.
120.
Wiewiórowski (2018) Data Protection and Privacy of the car… as a mobile device, Type-approval requirements for motor vehicles as regards their general safety and the protection of vehicle occupants and vulnerable road users https://www.europarl.europa.eu/cmsdata/158076/2018_11_29_wiewiorowski_event_recorders.pdf. Accessed on 1 August 2022.
121.
49 CFR Part 563.
122.
Wiewiórowski (2018), p. 21.
123.
AHEAD (Aggregated Homologation-proposal for Event Recorder Data for Automated Driving) (2019). https://www.thi.de/fileadmin/daten/forschung/CARISSMA/Technologiefelder/Sichere_Elektromobilitaet/Positionspapier_AHEAD.pdf. Accessed on 1 August 2022.
124.
Böhm et al. (2020).
125.
The European Commission (2021), Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) Draft supplementing Regulation (EU) 2019/2144 of the European Parliament and of the European Commission (2021), Proposal for Supplement 1 to the UN Regulation No. 160 (Event Data Recorder) and to the 01 series of amendments to UN Regulation No. 160. https://unece.org/sites/default/files/2021-04/GRSG-121-32e.pdf. Accessed on 1 August 2022.
126.
DSSAD system has its origins in the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration’s (NHTSA) nonregulatory approach to automated vehicle technology safety and has been introduced by the Working Party on General Safety Provisions. See ‘These data should also contain the status of the ADS and whether the ADS or the human driver was in control of the vehicle leading up to, during, and immediately following a crash’; OICA (2019).
127.
The European Commission (2021).
128.
Vrabec and Domnik (2021), p. 129.
129.
Brady (2019), p. 590.
130.
Brady (2019), p. 591.
131.
Brady (2019), p. 594.
132.
Brady (2019), p. 595.
133.
Brady (2019), p. 595.
134.
Brady (2019), p. 595.
135.
Brady (2019), p. 595.
136.
Brady (2019), p. 595.
137.
Brady (2019), p. 596.
138.
Brady (2019), p. 596.
139.
Brady (2019), p. 597.
140.
Haga (2017), p. 99.
141.
Forgó et al. (2017), p. 17.
142.
Lohmann (2016), p. 335.
143.
Lohmann (2016), p. 335.
144.
On-Road Automated Driving Committee (2018).
145.
Gasser et al. (2016), p. 523; Pammer et al. (2021), p. 257.
146.
See Kochupillai et al. (2020), pp. 285–299.
147.
Contissa (2017).
148.
Jeffcott and Rose (2017), p. 23.
149.
Noussia (2020), p. 254.
150.
Goldstein (2016), p. 248.
151.
Osmani (2020), p. 63.

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Authors and Affiliations

University of Reading, School of Law, Reading, UK
Kyriaki Noussia
Attorney at Law, Istanbul, Turkey
Zuhal Gocmen
Attorney at Law, Athens, Greece
Maria Glynou
LLM candidate and Research Assistant, LSE, London, UK
Maria Glynou

Authors

Kyriaki Noussia
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Zuhal Gocmen
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Maria Glynou
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Correspondence to Kyriaki Noussia .

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Editors and Affiliations

School of Law, University of Reading, Reading, Berkshire, UK
Kyriaki Noussia
Law School, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
Matthew Channon

Appendices

Cases

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Regulatory Guidance and Decisions

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Noussia, K., Gocmen, Z., Glynou, M. (2023). Legal and Ethical Aspects of Autonomous Vehicles. In: Noussia, K., Channon, M. (eds) The Regulation of Automated and Autonomous Transport. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32356-0_10

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32356-0_10
Published: 13 August 2023
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