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Child Trafficking: Contemporary Action in the Twenty-First Century

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The Trafficking of Children

Part of the book series: Transnational Crime, Crime Control and Security ((TCCCS))

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Abstract

This chapter will focus upon some of the contemporary action to address child trafficking and is divided into two respective sections. The first section examines the non-legislative actions of the United Nations, through organisations such as the International Labour Organization (ILO), and UNICEF to the Global Sustainable Development Goals (2015) and the creation of Special Rapporteurs with mandates relevant to child trafficking. The second section firstly considers the role of the Courts at international and regional level, namely through the International Criminal Court (ICC) and Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR). Prior to utilising data from the United Nations Office for Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Human Trafficking Case Law Database to create a snapshot case law review from several jurisdictions around the world, namely with cases from Malawi, Guatemala, The Philippines, and Bosnia and Herzegovina respectively (The cases have been selected as snapshot examples of cases that have been identified and recorded by the UNODC Database. Not to provide a comprehensive overview of the legislative challenges posed by the issues in different jurisdictions, but to provide context to the discussion within this book about the constrains of the contemporary legal responses to children, exploitation, trafficking, agency, and capacity). Finally, the chapter will critique what the author classifies as the anti-trafficking giant—the USA and their role of its influence upon in relation to contemporary anti-trafficking action.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Case Law Database (https://sherloc.unodc.org/cld/en/v3/sherloc/cldb/index.html?lng=en). Accessed December 2022.

  2. 2.

    Executive Summary, Australia, New Zealand Pacific Edition ‘Getting Started with the SDGs in Universities: A Guide for Universities, Higher Education Institutions and the Academic Sector’, University-SDG-Guide_web.pdf (https://ap-unsdsn.org/wp-content/uploads/University-SDG-Guide_web.pdf). Accessed October 2022.

  3. 3.

    SDSN Northern Europe Connected and Committed to Sustainable Development (https://www.unsdsn-ne.org/). Accessed September 2022.

  4. 4.

    Executive Summary, University-SDG-Guide_web.pdf (https://ap-unsdsn.org/wp-content/uploads/University-SDG-Guide_web.pdf). Accessed October 2022.

  5. 5.

    The Special Rapporteur reports on combating and preventing the sale and sexual exploitation of children through the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals from a child rights perspective to the General Assembly (A/73/174 and Corr.1) (17 July 2018).

  6. 6.

    A/77/140 25.

  7. 7.

    ALLIANCE 8.7 (https://www.alliance87.org/the-alliance/). Accessed October 2022.

  8. 8.

    Ibid.

  9. 9.

    Clothes, Chocolate and Children—Department of Politics—University of Liverpool (https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/politics/research/research-projects/ccc/). Accessed October 2022.

  10. 10.

    See further ILO 100 | The ILO Centenary (https://www.ilo.org/100/en/). Accessed December 2022.

  11. 11.

    With the League of Nations establishing an Advisory Committee on the Traffic in Women and Children, which included a representative from the ILO see further Pliley (2010).

  12. 12.

    Article 2 (1).

  13. 13.

    CTE/2nd Session/PV.17, Minutes of the Temporary Slavery Commission, second session, 22 July 1925, 6.

  14. 14.

    International Labour Organization, Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, ILO Convention No. 182 (17 June 1999). This Convention had 187 ratifications as of June 2021. https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:11300:0::NO:11300:P11300_INSTRUMENT_ID:312327. Accessed June 2021.

  15. 15.

    See further Akthar and Nyamutata (2020) ICL for details on child labour within the international legal framework.

  16. 16.

    See further ATR 2021—CHILDHOOD IN ITS PLACE. Chocolate, clothes Stalford et al. project.

  17. 17.

    R190—Worst Forms of Child Labour Recommendation, 1999 (No. 190), Recommendation concerning the prohibition and immediate action for the elimination of the worst forms of child labour. Adoption: Geneva, 87th ILC session (17 June 1999), para. 12.

  18. 18.

    See further ILO, UNICEF, and UN. GIFT, Training Manual to Fight Trafficking in Children for Labour, Sexual and Other Forms of Exploitation, Textbook 1: Understanding child trafficking, 2009). Moreover, public opinion and law enforcement agencies in many developing countries do not accord the same importance to respecting the minimum age set by national law and international conventions, which international organisations are bound to use as their point of reference.

  19. 19.

    About the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) (https://www.ilo.org/ipec/programme/lang--en/index.htm). Accessed October 2022.

  20. 20.

    Ibid.

  21. 21.

    See further Fig. 5.1.

  22. 22.

    International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) (https://www.ilo.org/ipec/lang--en/index.htm).

  23. 23.

    Note the activities of the UN Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Violence Against Children (SRSG) (https://violenceagainstchildren.un.org/). Accessed October 2022 the SRSG is a global independent advocate in favour of the prevention and elimination of all forms of violence against children. The SRSG acts as a bridge builder and a catalyst of actions in all regions, and across sectors and settings where violence against children may occur, and the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict. The mandate of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict was created by General Assembly resolution A/RES/51/77 (http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/51/77%26Lang=EArea=UNDOC) following the publication, in 1996, of the report by Graça Machel on the impact of armed conflict on children (https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/mandate/the-machel-reports/).

  24. 24.

    OHCHR | Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery (https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-slavery). Accessed October 2022.

  25. 25.

    Fact Sheet No. 27: Seventeen Frequently Asked Questions about United Nations Special Rapporteurs (Archive) (2001). Accessed October 2022.

  26. 26.

    Ibid.

  27. 27.

    OHCHR | Special Procedures of the Human Rights Council (https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures-human-rights-council). Accessed October 2022.

  28. 28.

    Special Procedures’ experts work on a voluntary basis; they are not UN staff and do not receive a salary for their work. They are independent from any government or organization and serve in their individual capacity.

  29. 29.

    Mr. Tomoya Obokata, Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery, including its causes and consequences; Ms. Siobhán Mullally, Special Rapporteur on trafficking in persons, especially women and children; Mr. Felipe González Morales, Special Rapporteur on the human rights of migrants.

  30. 30.

    UK: UN experts condemn attacks on credibility of slavery and trafficking victims | OHCHR (https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/12/uk-un-experts-condemn-attacks-credibility-slavery-and-trafficking-victims). Accessed December 2022.

  31. 31.

    E-CN4-RES-1990-68.pdf (https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/E-CN4-RES-1990-68.pdf). Accessed October 2022.

  32. 32.

    https://ap.ohchr.org/documents/E/HRC/resolutions/A_HRC_RES_7_13.pdf. Accessed October 2022.

  33. 33.

    A/77/140 Accessed via N2242099.pdf (https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N22/420/99/PDF/N2242099.pdf?OpenElement). Accessed October 2022.

  34. 34.

    Ibid.

  35. 35.

    Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography (2019) A/HRC/40/51, Sale and Sexual Exploitation of Children in the Context of Sports, 30.

  36. 36.

    United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography (2016) 25 Years Fighting the Sale and Sexual Exploitation of Children: addressing new challenges: V.

  37. 37.

    Human Rights Council, Mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, Resolution 7/13, 40th meeting (27 March 2008), para. 5.

  38. 38.

    See further Faulkner in Akhtar, Rajnaara/Nyamutata, Conrad, International Child Law, 2020.

  39. 39.

    See further OHCHR | Special Rapporteur on trafficking in persons, especially women and childrenhttps://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-trafficking-in-persons.

  40. 40.

    Resolution 44/4 A/HRC/RES/44/4 (https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G20/188/68/PDF/G2018868.pdf?OpenElement). Accessed October 2022.

  41. 41.

    See further, OHCHR | Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery (https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-slavery).

  42. 42.

    Human Rights Council (https://ap.ohchr.org/Documents/E/HRC/resolutions/A_HRC_RES_6_14.pdf). Accessed October 2022.

  43. 43.

    OHCHR | Overview of the mandate (https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-slavery/overview-mandate). Accessed October 2022.

  44. 44.

    Children and Prostitution: How can we measure the Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children? A literature review and annotated bibliography (UNICEF, 2nd edn., 1996).

  45. 45.

    Press release (29 July 2018) Children account for nearly one-third of identified trafficking victims globally. https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/children-account-nearly-one-third-identified-trafficking-victims-globally. Accessed June 2021.

  46. 46.

    Centre de Formation et de Recherche en matière de Population (CEFORP), Etude Nationale sur la Traite des Enfants. Rapport d’analyse, Ministère de la Famille et de l’Enfant et l’UNICEF, Cotonou, 2007.

  47. 47.

    See further E:\PUBLAW\PUBL386.106 (https://www.congress.gov/106/plaws/publ386/PLAW-106publ386.pdf). Accessed December 2022.

  48. 48.

    https://www.state.gov/international-and-domestic-law/. Accessed July 2020.

  49. 49.

    Consider (as just one example) Title 42 [Title 42 | U.S. Customs and Border Protection (https://www.cbp.gov/document/foia-record/title-42)] which has enabled the US government to exert it’s authority under Title 42 public health law to rapidly expel migrants, and in some cases suspend the right to seek asylum under US law and international law. The origins of Tile 42 come from the Trump administration, invoking title 42 shortly after the coronavirus outbreak. The purpose of title 42 was to prohibit border control agencies from holding migrants in “congregant settings” or holding stations where COVID19 could spread rapidly. In effect, title 42 gifted the government the power to rapidly expel any migrant, without giving them any opportunity to make a case for staying in the country legally, including to seek asylum.

  50. 50.

    Gallagher (2012, 23).

  51. 51.

    For the US context, see further the White-Slave Traffic Act of 1910 (often referred to as the Mann Act) which was a federal law that criminalised the transportation of “any woman or girl for the purpose of prostitution or debauchery, or for any other immoral purpose”. See further Brian Donovan (2005) White Slave Crusades: Race, Gender and Anti-vice Activism, 1887–1917, University of Illinois Press; Jessica Pliley (2014) Policing Sexuality: The Mann Act and the Making of the FBI, Harvard University Press.

  52. 52.

    https://www.state.gov/trafficking-in-persons-report/. Accessed August 2021.

  53. 53.

    See further TIP 2021. https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-trafficking-in-persons-report/. Accessed August 2021.

  54. 54.

    Note the ‘Child Soldiers Prevention Act List’—Which states that ‘Sect. 402 of the Child Soldiers Prevention Act, as amended (CSPA) requires publication in the annual TIP Report of a list of foreign governments identified during the previous year as having governmental armed forces, police, or other security forces, or government-supported armed groups that recruit or use child soldiers, as defined in the CSPA.’ Available via the Trafficking in Persons Report 2022.

  55. 55.

    Bouckli et al. (2023)—Faulkner. E.A. MSGC (BUP).

  56. 56.

    About the Court | International Criminal Court (https://www.icc-cpi.int/about/the-court). Accessed September 2022.

  57. 57.

    Ibid.

  58. 58.

    Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court | OHCHR (https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/rome-statute-international-criminal-court). Accessed September 2022.

  59. 59.

    See further Jean Allain Mobilization of International Law to Address Trafficking and Slavery (2009) paper presented at the Joint Stanford-University of California Law and Colonialism Africa Symposium, March 19–21, 2009.

  60. 60.

    As Gallagher notes, the UN Trafficking Principles and Guidelines issued by the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights in 2002 ‘provided a way forward that has supported the evolution of a cohesive “international law of human trafficking” which weaves together human rights and transnational criminal law’: AT Gallagher, ‘Two Cheers for the Trafficking Protocol’ (2015) 4 Anti-Trafficking Review 21. In 2005, the Council of Europe adopted a Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings whereby the criminal law thrust of anti-trafficking provisions was softened vis-a-vis the victims of trafficking who were often prosecuted for committing crimes when trafficked. Council of Europe, Council of Europe Convention on Action Against Trafficking in Human Beings (16 May 2005) CETS 197.

  61. 61.

    Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime (adopted 15 November 2000, entered into in force 25 December 2003) 2237 UNTS 319.

  62. 62.

    Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court | OHCHR (https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/rome-statute-international-criminal-court). Accessed September 2022.

  63. 63.

    Preparatory Commission for the ICC, Report of the Preparatory Commission for the ICC, Abbendum, Part II Finalized Draft Text of the Elements of the Crime, UN Doc PCNICC/2000/1/Add.2 November 2nd, 2000 (ICC Elements of Crimes).

  64. 64.

    Statement of ICC Prosecutor, Fatou Bensouda, on the occasion of this year’s International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women | International Criminal Court (https://www.icc-cpi.int/news/statement-icc-prosecutor-fatou-bensouda-occasion-years-international-day-elimination-violence). Accessed October 2022.

  65. 65.

    ICC (2016) Policy on Children, Paragraph 19, p. 12.

  66. 66.

    This definition is repeated in the Elements, which state, in Footnote 11 to this provision: “It is also understood that the conduct described in this element includes trafficking in persons, in particular women and children.” This footnote cites the 1956 Anti-Slavery Convention. Article 1(d) of that treaty calls for the abolition, inter alia, of “[a]ny institution or practice whereby a child or young person under the age of 18 years, is delivered by either or both of his natural parents or by his guardian to another person, whether for reward or not, with a view to the exploitation of the child or young person or of his labour.” Other treaties that may prove useful in the interpretation of this aspect of Article 7 of the Statute include the 2000 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the 2000 CRC-OPSC.

  67. 67.

    One of the elements relating to Article 7(1)(c) under the Elements is: “The perpetrator exercised any or all of the powers attaching to the right of ownership over one or more persons, such as by purchasing selling, lending, or bartering such a person or persons, or by imposing on them a similar deprivation of liberty.” Footnote 11 to this element clarifies in relevant part: “It is understood that such deprivation of liberty may, in some circumstances, include exacting forced labour or otherwise reducing a person to a servile status as defined in the Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery of 1956.”

  68. 68.

    See further Hacienda Brasil Verde Workers v. Brazil: Slavery and Human Trafficking in the Inter-American Court of Human Rights | OHRH (https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/hacienda-brasil-verde-workers-v-brazil-slavery-and-human-trafficking-in-the-inter-american-court-of-human-rights/). Accessed September 2022.

  69. 69.

    Article 6(1) Prohibition of Slavery, Slave-Trade, Traffic in Women and Involuntary Servitude; Article 8(1) Right to a hearing Within Reasonable Time by a Competent and Independent Tribunal; Article 25 Right to Judicial Protection.

  70. 70.

    See further Human Trafficking Case Law milestone (https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-trafficking/Webstories2017/human-trafficking-case-law-milestone.html). Accessed July 2022.

  71. 71.

    Republic v Masautoso Banda, Criminal Case No. 347 of 2005.

  72. 72.

    Banda (https://sherloc.unodc.org/cld/case-law-doc/traffickingpersonscrimetype/mwi/banda.html?lng=en%26tmpl=sherloc). Accessed July 2022.

  73. 73.

    Case No. 38-2009 (https://sherloc.unodc.org/cld/case-law-doc/traffickingpersonscrimetype/gtm/2009/case_no._38-2009.html?lng=en%26tmpl=sherloc). Accessed July 2022.

  74. 74.

    (p. 347).

  75. 75.

    CRIM. CASE NO. CBU-86668, Regional Trial Court, 7th Judicial Region, Branch 6, Cebu City.

  76. 76.

    CRIM. CASE NO. CBU-86668 (https://sherloc.unodc.org/cld/case-law-doc/traffickingpersonscrimetype/phl/2011/crim._case_no._cbu-86668.html?lng=en%26tmpl=sherloc). Accessed July 2022.

  77. 77.

    030K016017 (2017) M. E. Case (https://sherloc.unodc.org/cld/case-law-doc/traffickingpersonscrimetype/bih/2017/030k016017_2017_m._e._case.html?lng=en%26tmpl=sherloc). Accessed July 2022.

  78. 78.

    Ibid.

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  1. Keele University, Keele, UK

    Elizabeth A. Faulkner

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Faulkner, E.A. (2023). Child Trafficking: Contemporary Action in the Twenty-First Century. In: The Trafficking of Children. Transnational Crime, Crime Control and Security. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23566-5_5

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